Biblical Hebrew for Translators. An Introduction

Extracted text from Biblical_Hebrew_Workbook178_2012.pdf:

TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword SECTION A The Ancient Near East:a short geographical and historical survey 1. The Ancient near East and its people: I 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Introduction The third millennium The second millennium Revision The Ancient Near East and its People: overview

9 11 11 13 13 14 17 20 21

2. The Ancient Near East and its People: II 2.1 The first millennium 2.2 Revision

23 23 25

3. Syro-Palestine: a geographical and historical survey 3.1 Regions

27 27

SECTION B Introduction to Biblical Hebrew and the world of the Bible 4. The Hebrew alphabet: consonants 4.1 Excerpt from BHRG 4 4.2 Remarks 4.3 Exercise: consonants

31 31 33 33 37 38

5. The Hebrew alphabet: vowels 5.1 Excerpt: BHRG 5 5.2 Exercises: vowels

41 41 44

6. Diphthongs, accentuation and Masoretic signs 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Excerpt: BHRG 6-7 Exercise: Masoretic signs Masoretic signs Exercise: Masoretic signs

49 49 52 53 55

1

7. Geography and Worldview 7.1 Worldview Vocabulary 1 7.2 Division of time Vocabulary 2 7.3 Geography of Israel (See 1.3.3 Israel) Vocabulary 3 Vocabulary 4 7.4 Exercise: Recognition of BH lexemes (geography) 7.5 Exercise: Recognizing BH lexemes (division of time )

57 57 57 58 58 59 59 59 61 62

8. Cultural History I Vocabulary 5 Vocabulary 6 8.1 The world of the patriarchs 8.2 Vocabulary exercise: The world of the patriarchs

65 65 65 65 67

9. Cultural history II and Adjectives I Vocabulary 7 Vocabulary 8 9.1 Israel in Egypt and the exodus (1550-1280 BC) 9.2 Adjectives I 9.3 Vocabulary exercise: Israel in Egypt and the exodus

71 71 71 71 72 72

10. Number, gender and definiteness Vocabulary 9 10.1 Gender and number 10.2 Definiteness 10.3 The adjective II 10.4 Adjectives and vocabulary exercises

75 75 75 76 77 78

11. Cultural history III and Conjuctions I Vocabulary 10 11.1 The entry and establishment (1280-1020 BC) 11.2 The conjunctions and 11.3 Vocabulary exercise: The entry and establishment

81 81 81 84 85

12. Cultural history IV and prepositions I Vocabulary 11 Vocabulary 12 12.1 The living conditions in the period: 1280-1020 BC 12.2 Prepositions

87 87 87 87 89

2

12.3 Vocabulary-exercises: Living conditions 1280-1020 BC

90

13. Cultural history V Vocabulary 13 Vocabulary 14 Vocabulary 15 13.1 The family and social organisation of the period: 1280-1020 BC

91 91 91 91 92

14. Status constructus Vocabulary 16 14.1 Morphology and syntax 14.2 Exercises: The analysis of status constructus forms I 14.3 Exercises: The analysis the status constructus forms II 14.4 Parsing

95 95 95 96 97 98

15. Cultural history VI Vocabulary 17 Vocabulary 18 Vocabulary 19 15.1 The religious situation in the period : 1280-1020 BC 15.2 Vocabulary exercise: The religious situation between 1280-1020 BC

99 99 99 99 100 101

16. Cultural history VII Vocabulary 20 Vocabulary 21 16.1 The uniqueness of the world of the Bible 16.2 Names of the external body parts and their metaphoric use 16.3 Names for the organs and their metaphoric uses: 16.4 Representation of self 16.5 wind/spirit/breath 16.6 Vocabulary exercise: Body parts and organs

105 105 105 105 106 109 111 111 111

17. Pronoun I Vocabulary 22 Vocabulary 23 17.1 Independent personal pronoun 17.2 Demonstrative pronouns 17.3 Interrogative words 17.4 Exercises: Pronouns

115 115 115 115 117 118 119

18. Pronouns II Vocabulary 24 18.1 Personal suffixes 3

121 121 121

18.2 Exercises: personal suffixes

123

19. Pronouns III: Personal suffixes for prepositions and Cultural history VII 127 Vocabulary 25 19.1 Personal suffixes for prepositions ( and ) 19.2 Transition to the monarchy: the nation asks for a king (1 Sam 8) 19.3 Exercise: Recognition of personal suffixes and vocabulary 127 127 128 129

20. Verbs I Vocabulary 26 Vocabulary 27 20.1 Verbs and the manner in which sentences are constructed 20.2 Exercise in the recognition of sentence constituents

131 131 131 132 135

21. Word (or constituent) order in BH sentences 21.1 Nominal (verbless) sentences 21.2 Verbal sentences

137 137 137

22. Verbs II Vocabulary 28 Vocabulary 29 Vocabulary 30 22.1 Characteristics of verbs 22.2 Qal perfect conjugation 22.3 Meaning of the Qal perfect form 22.4 Exercises: Verbs II

139 139 139 140 140 141 142 143

23. Verbs III Vocabulary 31 Vocabulary 32 23.1 Qal imperfect conjugation (also referred to as yiqtol or prefix conjugation) 23.2 Meaning of the Qal imperfect form 23.3 Exercises: Verb III

145 145 145 146 147 148

24. The different types of waws Vocabulary 33 24.1 The waw-copulative 24.2 The waw-consecutive 24.3 Exercises: waw-copulative and consecutive

151 151 151 151 152

25. Cultural history VIII Vocabulary 34

155 155

4

25.1 The monarchy (1020-587BC) 25.2 One kingdom: (1020-922 BC)

155 155

26. Verbs IV: Directives: imperative, jussive and cohortative Vocabulary 35 26.1 Imperative forms 26.2 Cohortative and cohortative form 26.3 Jussive and jussive form 26.4 Negative requests and commands 26.5 Series of commands and requests 26.6 Exercises: Directives

157 157 157 157 158 159 159 160

27. Verbs V: The infinitive construct (inf cs) Vocabulary 36 Vocabulary 37 27.1 Form of the inf cs 27.2 Uses of the inf cs 27.3 Negation of the inf cs 27.4 Exercises: Inf cs

163 163 163 164 164 165 165

28. Verbs VI: The infinite absolute and participle Vocabulary 38 28.1 The form of the infinite absolute (inf abs) 28.2 The uses of the inf abs 28.3 Participle 28.4 Exercises: Inf abs and participle

169 169 169 169 170 171

29. Numerals Vocabulary 39 Vocabulary 40 29.1 Inductive listening exercise: numerals 1-10 29.2 Introduction 29.3 Morphology and syntax of cardinals 29.4 Morphology and syntax of ordinals 29.5 Numerals: vocabulary 29.6 Exercises: Numerals

173 173 173 174 174 174 176 177 177

30. Cultural history XI: Organisation of the cult Vocabulary 41 30.1 Places of worship 30.2 Types of offerings 30.3 Offering ritual 30.4 Exercise

179 179 179 181 182 183

5

31. The Stem Formations 31.1 Survey 31.2 The morphology of the Qal and Niphal stem formations 31.3 The semantics of the Qal and Niphal stem formations 31.4 Exercise: The stem formations I 31.5 The morphology of the Piel, Pual and Hithpael stem formations 31.6 The semantics of the Piel, Pual and Hithpael stem formations Vocabulary 42 31.7 Exercises: The stem formations II 31.8 The morphology of the Hiphil and Hophal stem formations 31.9 The semantics of the Hiphil and Hophal stem formations Vocabulary 43 31.10 Exercises: The stem formations III

185 185 185 185 185 186 186 186 187 189 189 189 190

32. Cultural history X: The divided kingdom (922 722 vC) Vocabulary 44

195 195

33. Reading a BH text I Vocabulary 45 Vocabulary 46 Vocabulary 47 33.1 The division of the kingdom: 1 Kgs 12:1-11

199 199 199 200 200

34. Pronominal Suffixes added to verbs Vocabulary 48 Vocabulary 49 Vocabulary 50 34.1 Read BHRG 17 34.2 Exercises: Pronominal suffixes

207 207 207 208 208 209

35. Reading a BH text II Vocabulary 51 Vocabulary 52 Vocabulary 53 35.1 The division of the kingdom: 1 Kgs 12:12-27

211 211 211 211 212

36. Irregular Verbs

219

36.1 Irregular Verbs I: Survey 219 36.2 Irregular verb stems II: I-nun, I, II and III gutturals (except the I- and III-aleph which are not pronounced and III-he) 221 Vocabulary 54 221 Vocabulary 55 221

6

36.3 Irregular verb stems III: I- and III-aleph verb stems which are not pronounced 223 Vocabulary 56 223 Vocabulary 57 224 Vocabulary 58 224 36.4 Irregular verb stems IV: III-he verb stems 225 36.5 Irregular verb stems V: I-yod and I-waw stems 227 Vocabulary 59 227 Vocabulary 60 227 36.6 Exercises: Irregular verb stems 229 36.7 Irregular verb stems VI: II-yod and II-waw stems 230

37. Cultural History XI: Judah and Israel 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 Survey of the kings in Israel and Judah Elijah (1 Kgs 17 2 Kgs 2) Elisha (2 Kgs 3 10) The Assyrian crisis (2 Kgs 11 17)

233 233 234 235 235

38. Reading a BH text III 1 Kgs 17: Elijah and the drought in Israel

237 237

39. Vocabulary (alphabetical)

241

7

8

FOREWORD This Biblical Hebrew Workbook has primarily been written for students and translators who do Biblical Hebrew 178 (or Short Course 2882) at the University of Stellenbosch. Biblical Hebrew 178 is aimed at enabling students to: Understand and use the Biblical Hebrew writing system; Read aloud a simple narrative text in Biblical Hebrew with relative ease; Know 420 Biblical Hebrew words in their cultural context (This includes a basic view of, and understanding of, the world of the Bible); Be able to render the most basic paradigms concerning the manner in which nouns, pronouns and verbs are formed; Have a general view of the grammar of Biblical Hebrew; Use an electronical library (e.g. Logos or Paratext); Reading and translating a selection of narrative texts with the help of the Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar (van der Merwe, Naud and Kroeze 1999) and Logos or Paratext.

This Biblical Hebrew Workbook is not intended to be used as a stand-alone Introduction to Bible Hebrew. It has been conceptualized as follows: 1) It wants to introduce students to Biblical Hebrew by means a walk through the world of the Bible, in particuar the geography of the Israel and the development of the culturalhistory and the conceptual world of the people of the Bible (from Abraham to Elijah). 2) The most frequent 420 lexemes (those that occur more than 90 times) in the Hebrew Bible are used as vehicle in this regard. These lexemes are learned in groups of seven, and should be memorized before each lecture. Students are assessed during each lecture in this regard. All the lexemes are recorded in the form of a small lexicon at the end of the book. For the purposes of the memorization of the vocabulary, students should use Anki (as developed by Dr. Jeremy Thompson). Anki is available free of charge from the lecturer. It could also be downloaded from Blackboard. 3) The workbook wants to provide students with a general introduction and overview of the Hebrew grammar. Only the most basic and frequent occurring constructions are treated. As far as irregular (weak) verbs are concerned, the programme Paradigms Masters Pro has proven to be very helpful for practicing the parsing of these verbs. The programme has been lisenced to be used by students and staff of the University fo Stellenbosh. It is also available free of charge from the lecturer or can be downloaded from Blackboard. 4) The workbook wants to lead students gradually into the use of the more logically organized Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar (=BHRG). Students should discard this workbook at the successful completion of Biblical Hebrew 178. The BHRG is intended to serve as their logically ordered long-term memory and linguistic resource on Biblical Hebrew in the subsequent modules of Biblical Hebrew.

9

This workbook has been developed over a period of 15 years, and benefitted among other things much from NRF-funded resarch projects in the fields of Foreign Language Learning, Computer-assisted Language Learning and Language Learning for Special Purposes. (see van der Merwe 1992 and 2002 and Thompson 2011). The workbook embraces a cognitive approach to language. This implies that meaning is considered to be at the centre of any linguistic enterprise (in this case the learning of a textbased language like Biblical Hebrew). It is assumed that lexical and grammatical constructions have a semantic potential. Typically one dimension of that potential is construed in a particular context. At the initial stages of learning a language, students are expected to learn only the most prototypical usages. However, they would be sensitized for the fact that linguistic expressions could have a range of senses. In this regard they would need to turn to the more exhaustive versions of BH linguistic resources, e.g. Koehler and Baumgartner (1988). Most of the maps in this workbook are from Cornelius and Venter (2002). The workbook benefited through the years from suggestions (and corrections) by colleagues and students. I would like thank in particular Egon Roth, Brighton Imbayarwo, Tiana Bosman, Alex Andrason, Johann Cook, Daniel Rodriguez, Gideon Kotze, Alex Andrason and Eva Raal in for their contributions. The most recent version of the workbook was finalized after being used in a Short Course presented to 15 Bible translators in Nairobi, Kenia, Jan and June 2011. At this venue the contributions of colleagues like Andy Warren, Gerrit van Steenbergen and Samy Tioy were valuable. Sharp observations of some of the student also helped to weed out some of the typos. I want to thank Milton Shissa, Portia Baseki, Christian Ntondele Mafouta and Isaac Hemou in this regards. Of course, any of the remaining typos are the responsibility of the author.

Bibliography Cornelius, I and Venter, PJ 2002. From the Nile to the Euphrates: An Introduction to the Cultures of the Ancient Near East. Stellenbosch: MACU. Koehler, L. and W. Baumgartner 1988. The Hebrew and Aramaic lexicon of the Old Testament; subsequently revised by Walter Baumgartner and Johann Jakob Stamm. Grand Rapids: Mich., Eerdmans. Van der Merwe, C H J 1992. Applied linguistics and the teaching of Biblical Hebrew. Not a bag full of tricks, but a confrontation with the basics of teaching a foreign language. Journal for Semitics 3, 167-187. Van der Merwe, C H J 2002. Bible Hebrew instruction: A program benefiting from Foreign Language Learning and Computer-Assisted Language Learning, in Cook, J (ed.). Bible and Computer Proceedings of the 6th AIBI Congress Stellenbosch 17-21 July 2000. Leiden: E J Brill. 619-646. Van der Merwe, C H J, Naud, J A and Kroeze, J H 1999. A Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar. Sheffield Academic Press: Sheffield. Thompson, J. 2011. Learning Biblical Hebrew vocabulary: insights from Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition. PhD Dissertation, University of Stellenbosch.

Christo H J van Merwe, Stellenbosch, January 2012.

10

SECTION A

The Ancient Near East:a short geographical and historical survey

11

12

1. The Ancient near East and its people: I

13

1.1 Introduction PowerPoint 1 1.1.1 Which nations lived in the region? The Egyptians, Nubians, Ethiopians, Canaanites, Phoenicians, Israelites, Arameans, Moabites, Philistines, Edomites, Ammonites, Hittites, Hurrians, Sumerians, Assyrians, Kassites, Babylonians, Chaldeans, Amorites, Elamites and Persians. It is important to take into consideration the historical perspective of who lived where and when.

1.1.2. Historical survey 3rd millennium: Sumerians (the first cities and cuneiform writing), Akkadians, Egyptians (hieroglyphics are developed and the pyramids built). 2nd millennium: Old-Assyrian and Ancient Babylonian Empire; the literature of Egypt emerges and the Egyptians are influential in Palestine. In particular, they were engaged in conflict with the Hittites and Hurites. 1st millennium: In this millennium, the Egyptian Empire goes into decline. A number of smaller cultures emerge: e.g. the Phoenicians, Philistines, Arameans, Israelites, Moabites, Edomites and Ammonites. The seat of power has moved to the Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks and Romans.

1.2 The third millennium PowerPoint 2

Mesopotamia: overview

Mesopotamia: Sumeria

14

1.2.1 Sumerians Sumeria refers to an area in southern Iraq situated between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The Bible refers to these two rivers in Gen 2:14. The Greeks called it the land between the rivers (Mesopotamia). The Sumerians were the first culture to use a form of writing. This cuneiform writing was usually done on clay tablets. The area in which the Sumerians lived was poor in stone, wood and metals. Instead they farmed on the fertile silt, which the two rivers carried down from the north. Contrary to the Nile, the flow of these rivers was unreliable. It seldom rained and the people were forced to develop innovative ways of using the river water effectively. Mud dams, canals and the first shadufs were built. Most of the population settled in the marsh deltas, which were full of reeds. Here the first cities, such as Ur, Uruk and Nippur, developed. The drier regions between the cities were much more sparsely populated. This led to the political development of the various cities into independent city states, each with their own deity and king. The heart of these city states were their extensive temple complexes. A surplus of agricultural products and an industry producing pottery wares and clothing enabled the Sumerians to trade for raw materials such as wood and stone. For this purpose they built sailing boats, with which they traveled in the Persian Gulf. Towards the west, they developed caravan routes. Constant tension existed between the city states. When war threatened, a ruler (called a lugal) was appointed by a council of elders for the duration of the crisis. In time, rulers received more permanent status and began to take over the role of the elders. The authority of the king was also expanded and he began to appoint his own successor. Furthermore, he acted as priest and judge. Among the oldest laws recorded are those of Ur-Nammu (circa 2000 BC). One of the Sumerian kings who managed to subjugate a number of other city states was Lugalzagezi. However he met his match in Sargon I, the king of Akkad. Although they were defeated by the Akkadians, the Sumerians recovered by 2100 BC under the Ur III dynasty of Ur-Nammu. After this brief resurgence of the Sumerian culture, the Sumerians were conquered by the Elamites.

1.2.2 Akkad Remains of the city of Akkad have still not been found. The Akkadians were a Semiticspeaking group that invaded Sumeria from the west (i.e. from the desert side). Under Sargon I they developed into a great power. Akkad was not merely a city state but also a territorial state that launched several military campaigns. Sargons realm of power stretched from the Persian Gulf as far as the Mediterranean Sea. They adopted the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians, as well as their religion and their irrigation technology. Akkadian cuneiform writing became the world language of the 2nd millennium. The successor of Sargon I, Naram-Sin, consolidated his fathers rule. Shortly afterwards, Gutians from the Zagros Mountains put an end to this first Semitic kingdom of the ancient world.

15

1.2.3 Egypt

16

Egypt, with a culture that reaches back to 3000 BC, only became a force to be reckoned with in the ANE by 1500 BC. In the same manner as the Mesopotamian culture, Egypt developed on the banks of a river and has been described as a gift from the Nile. The Egyptians' observations of the regularity with which the Nile flooded its banks led them to develop a calendar of 356 days. In contrast to the Sumerian culture, Egypt was a united state from the beginning. The Egyptians were isolated by water and desert and not easily influenced by other cultures. They developed their own style of writing, which is called hieroglyphics. The families of the rulers of Egypt came from a succession of into 30 dynasties. The apex of these dynasties, which stretched from 2920 BC until 332 BC, was reached during the Old Kingdom (2475-2134), the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640) and the New Kingdom (1550-1070). The building of the pyramids was developed during the Old Kingdom, from the mastaba (a grave covered by stone blocks) and the step pyramid of Djoser to the classical pyramids of Giza. From the pyramid texts, proverbs that were required to accompany the dead, it is possible to learn about the Egyptian religion, their understanding of life after death and their literature. The pharaoh was at the pinnacle of the community and was seen as the son of the sun god Ra. Under him were the officials, craftsmen and workers, who built the pyramids. The backbone of society was the small farmers, who constituted 80% of the population. In contrast to the Semitic cultures, women enjoyed legal equality with men and there were even women pharaohs. The Old Kingdom collapsed as a result of drought. When the son of the sun god could no longer meet the needs of his people, his influence diminished. The high cost of building the pyramids was also a factor in the process of the collapse of the Old Kingdom.

1.2.4 Syro-Palestine Although the most influential cultures of the time were Egypt and Mesopotamia, there was not a cultural vacuum in Syro-Palestine. This is confirmed by excavations of the city Ebla, which dates back to 2600-2350 BC. A library consisting of thousands of clay tablets was found, many of which were written in a North Western Semitic language. From these texts it can be deduced that Ebla was a sophisticated society which played an important role in international trade.

1.3 The second millennium PowerPoint 3 1.3.1 Ancient Babylon The city of Babylon was situated between Akkad and Sumeria and originally the Sumerians ruled over it. In time, the Amorites (also Semites like the Akkadians and the ancestors of the Babylonians) extended their power to include Babylon. Under Hammurabi (1792-1750BC) they conquered the whole region that had previously been ruled over by Sumeria. Hammurabi was a master diplomat: he is famous for the manner in which he drew other Amorite groups under his sphere of influence and then conquered them. His kingdom extended from the Persian Gulf to the city of Mari in the west.

17

Hammurabi was an excellent administrator of his empire. His collection of laws with their 282 stipulations, which is in fact more a literary work about the greatness of Hammurabi than a code of law, is one of the most important sources for the study of justice in the ANE. Although the Ancient Babylonians absorbed many elements of the Sumerian culture, the temple lost some of its influence in the Ancient Babylonian society. The Ancient Babylonians were also active in trade. Through some of the texts found at Mari, insight into this aspect of their culture have been gleaned. The Hittites from Anatolia attacked Ancient Babylonia in the 16th century. However, it was the Kassites who finally conquered their empire in the 15th century. Gen 10:11 refers to Babylon as a part of Shinar.

The Kingdom of Hammurabi

1.3.2 Egypt During the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640) the pharaohs undertook a great temple-building program. Trade with Syro-Palestine increased at this time, as well as the role played in Egypt by people from that region. A story has been discovered about the experiences of a man named Sinuhe, who lived in Palestine then. The end of the Middle Kingdom was initiated by a conflict between the Egyptians and the so-called Hyksos. It is not clear exactly who these people were; however, it is known that they did have close ties with the Amorite population of Syro-Palestine. The Hyksos were driven from Egypt by 1550.

18

The government of Akhmoses introduced the New Kingdom (1550-1070). One of his successors, Akhenaten, moved the capital city from Thebes to Amarna. At Amarna a large number of clay tablets in Akkadian were found wherein mention is made of correspondence between the pharaohs and foreign rulers (the Hittites and rulers in Babylon, Assyria and Syro-Palestine). Akhenaten abolished the traditional polytheism, teaching instead that there was only one god (monotheism). During the New Kingdom, Egypt made its influence felt in Syro-Palestine, although it was not possible to ever totally rule over it. This inhibited the Hittites and the Mithnites. The period of the New Kingdom was the climax of Egyptian influence in the ANE, especially in the field of art and architecture. Amongst other factors, drought again was influential in the demise of the New Kingdom as was the arrival of a group of people known as the sea peoples.

1.3.3 Syro-Palestine

Syro-Palestine

19

Relatively little information regarding what was happening in Palestine during the second millennium is known. The Hittites were influential in the north. Texts discovered at Mari and Amarna mention trade in the region. Some of the most insightful information has been obtained from the excavations of the city of Ugarit in Syria. Mention is made of the city of Ugarit in correspondence, the so-called Amarna letters, found at Amarna. Since 1929 excavations have continued at this city, which bears the modern Arabic name of Ras Shamra. The city was already flourishing in the period 2100 to 1600 BC. Temples from this period in honour of the gods Baal and Dagon have been found. After a somewhat dark period, the golden era of the city occurred in the Late Bronze Period (15001200 BC). One of the greatest royal palaces of the ancient world was built there during this time. The arrival of the sea-peoples in about 1200 BC brought the city to a sudden end and it was not inhabited again. Many Akkadian cuneiform tablets were discovered in the royal palace. However, the most remarkable find was the tablets that list cuneiform symbols which correspond to alphabetic signs (and not syllables). These tablets, in a Semitic language which became known as Ugaritic, were mainly found near the temple complex and shed light on the religion, literature (e.g. the Baal epic), the economy of the city and its culture, which was quite close to that of Ancient Israel. As a language, Ugaritic is closely related to Hebrew.

1.4 Revision

1. What was the difference between the Sumerian and Akkadian political systems? 2. What is known about the city of Ebla? 3. Were Sumerian and Akkadian both Semitic languages? 4. Which form of writing was developed by the Egyptians? 5. What was distinctive to the Egyptian political system? 6. Into which three phases may Egyptian history be divided? 7. What do you know about the city of Amarna? 8. Which region did the Ancient Babylonian Kingdom cover? Who was the founder of this kingdom?

20

1.5 The Ancient Near East and its People: overview Mesopotamia 3000 Sumerian city states (3100-2400) Cuneiform, temple economy, Gilgamesh epic 2500 Old Kingdom (2575-2130) First Semitic state, and Sargon I, Akkadian pyramids cuneiform becomes pyramid texts world language Akkad (2370-2190) Ur III (2120-2000) Recovery of Sumerian culture, centralised state 2000 Amorites Middle Kingdom (2050-1650) Temple Hyksos 1500 Ancient Babylonian Kingdom (18001500) Hammurabi, Mari Kassites 1100) laws, Hittite Ugarit (1500-1200) Kingdom New (1500- New Kingdom (1550-1070) Texts, alphabetic writing, Baal Amarna period, treaties influence in Canaan complex Old Hittite Mari (1800) Kingdom archives (1700-1500) Ebla (2300) Trade city, Semitic texts WestEgypt Anatolia Syro-Palestine

21

22

2. The Ancient Near East and its People: II PowerPoint 4

2.1 The first millennium 2.1.1 Egypt Egypt was no longer a world power during the first millennium. However, its influence did spread up the coast of Syro-Palestine. While this was sometimes threatening to the kings of the region, they were never conquered by the Egyptians. Coalitions between these kings and the Egyptians were sometimes formed against the powers of the north (e.g. the Assyrians). Egypt was overrun by the Assyrians, Babylonians and the Persians at various times.

2.1.2 Neo-Assyria

Neo-Assyrian Kingdom Little is known about the Assyrians during the 3rd millennium. They were subjugated under the Akkadian king Sargon I and the Sumerian Ur-III dynasty. Assur was not only their capital city, but also the name of their god and the kingdom itself. Assur had virtually no natural resources and did not have a harbor. As a result, the Assyrians were, from the first, traders ambitious to extend their territory and improve it. There was no military power ruling the Assyrians at the beginning of the 2nd millennium. The Assyrian traders were busy across the entire ANE organising their activities with the help of peaceful agreements. With the ascent of the Ancient Babylonian Kingdom, the Assyrians had to pay homage to Hammurabi, but when this kingdom fell they were again independent. However, they were in

23

constant conflict with the Kassites in Babylon. The apex of the Assyrians' history was reached during the period from 900-600 BC, the so-called Neo-Assyrian Empire. Initially there was a period of development (880-780) under Assunasirpal II, Shalmaneser III and Adad-Nerari III. This was followed by a period of decline in 780-745. Under Tiglathpileser III and Shalmaneser V (745-725) the kingdom flourished. After its final phase under Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal (725-625), the kingdom collapsed in 605. The Assyrians were especially known for two things: (1) the manner in which they conducted war and besieged cities, and (2) their policy regarding deportation (enacted by Tiglathpileser III). A great deal is known about the Assyrians during the 1st millennium because their kings considered it important to keep good records of their battles. In some of these reports mention is made of several Israelite and Judean kings; e.g. Ahab, who fought in a SyroPalestinian coalition at Karkar (853) against Shalmaneser III. Jehu of the Omride dynasty is even mentioned on the so-called black obelisk of Shalmaneser. It is also recorded that Menahem of Israel and Jehoash of Judah paid tax to Tiglathpileser III. Syro-Palestinian rulers attempted to stop the invasion of the area by Tiglathpileser (according to 2 Kgs 16). Damascus was destroyed and Israel was invaded. Judah immediately submitted to him but Israel later rebelled. In 722 Samaria was invaded and its inhabitants were taken into exile. Eventually the Assyrians ruled the whole of the Ancient Near East from Elam to Egypt. Rebellions were viciously suppressed. However, the overreaction of Sennacherib to a rebellion in Babylon initiated the end of the Assyrian kingdom. He destroyed the city of Babylon and the Marduk temple. This brought about the beginning of the new world power, i.e. the Neo-Babylonians. A great legacy from the Assyrians was the Assurbanipal library in Nineveh. In this location the huge literary collection of Mesopotamia was kept. This included the Mesopotamian story of creation, the Gilgamesh epic, the great flood of Enlil and the stories of the Mesopotamian Job.

2.1.3 Neo-Babylonian Kingdom After the Ancient Babylonian Kingdom, Babylon was ruled by the Kassites. After the Assyrian defeat at Carchemish in 605, Nabopolassar began to build the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom. The so-called Babylonian chronicle is a valuable source regarding these events. In a sense the Babylonians absorbed the whole Assyrian Kingdom. Jerusalem was invaded in 597; Jehoiachin was captured and Zedekiah was appointed in his stead. After the second rebellion in 587, Jerusalem was destroyed. The Kassites went to a great deal of trouble to rebuild Babylon. They built a complicated double wall structure, nine gates and a variety of temples, of which the temple of Marduk was very prominent. The famous hanging gardens were built for one of the wives of Nebuchadnezzar. Nabonidus came to power in 556. However, at some point he went to live in the desert and dedicated himself to the Moon god. His son, Belshazzer, ruled in his stead. When Cyrus, the Persian, approached in 539, Babylon was taken without a battle.

24

2.1.4 The Persian Kingdom The Persian Kingdom was the first empire in the true sense of the word. It stretched from the Indus to Libya. Before Cyrus the Persian expanded the kingdom, it consisted of four areas: Elam, Persia, Media and Parthia. Persian is an Indo-European language. In the Persian Kingdom, Aramaic was the lingua franca. The history of the Persian Kingdom is well-documented by Greek and Roman historians, amongst others. Excavations at Persepolis produced a great deal of archaeological evidence. Although they had their own religion, Zoroastrianism, a characteristic of Persian policy was its tolerance of the religious convictions of their subjects. Under the rule of Cyrus, the Jews were allowed to return to Jerusalem and they rebuilt the Temple under Darius (521-485). Under Artaxerxes (464-423) the walls of Jerusalem were rebuilt by Ezra and Nehemiah.

Persian Kingdom with its regions (satrapies)

2.2 Revision What is Ugarit known for? Who were the three major powers in the first millennium? Approximately when were they active? What were the Assyrians known for? Name the literary works that were found in the Assurbanipal library at Nineveh. When did the Babylonians destroy Jerusalem? How did the Persians invade the neo-Babylonian Kingdom? Name the three Persian kings directly involved with the history of Israel.

25

26

3. Syro-Palestine: a geographical and historical survey PowerPoint 5

3.1 Regions 3.1.1 Phoenicia The Phoenicians lived in the coastal region that comprises present-day Lebanon. This is a mountainous area and it provided them with wood for export; agricultural industries were not possible. They were by and large traders. Harbours were developed at Biblos, Tyre and Sidon and they are considered to be the first sea-faring nation. They did not leave a literary legacy. The oldest Phoenician inscriptions date from 1000 BC. Their major contribution was the alphabet they developed, which became the basis for the Aramaic alphabet. In the ANE they enjoyed great prestige and as a result the Assyrians never tried to conquer them, but instead used them as partners.

3.1.2 Aram The Arameans lived in present-day Syria. The first reference to them concerns a conflict with the Assyrians in 1100 BC. Their capital was Damascus. They farmed with barley, garlic and cattle. The name of their chief god was Hadad. Their lifestyle and that of the Israelites were similar. However, the relationship between the Aramaeans and the Israelites was changeable. It varied from open conflict to coalitions against the Assyrians. Tiglathpileser III destroyed Damascus in 732 BC. Like the Phoenicians, the Aramaeans did not leave an extended literary collection although as a language Aramaic was widely spoken. Soon after it appeared with Akkadian in 800 BC on tablets, it became the official language of the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom. It was also the lingua franca of the Persian Empire, which is the reason that parts of the Bible were written in Aramaic. Jesus also spoke Aramaic. The square script in which Hebrew is written today was derived from the Aramaeans.

3.1.3 The Philistines The Philistines lived on the coastal plain of southern Palestine. They arrived in the area by 1200 BC and established a number of city states such as Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon and Gath. They were a threat to Israel in the time of the judges. Their gods were Dagon, Asherah and Astarte.

3.1.4 Moab, Ammon and Edom Little is known concerning the peoples of these regions. The most important historical evidence regarding the Moabites is found in the inscription of Mesha, which is dedicated to the Moabite god, Chemosh. In this writing mention is made that Omri suppressed the Moabites.

27

28

29

3.1.5 Israel Ancient Israel must not be confused with the borders of the modern state of Israel. In Biblical times, it mainly referred to the regions of the ten northern tribes. This lay to the north of the region occupied by Judah. Canaan refers to both the nothern region and Juday before it was settled by the Ancient Israelites. In ancient correspondence, Canaan refers to nearly the whole area of Syro-Palestine. Today the term Palestine refers to the areas under Palestinian political administration. Previously, it had referred to the areas east and west of the Jordan River. The word itself comes from the Assyrian word palashtu. This word also refers to the Philistines. In the north were several harbours, namely Biblos, Tyre and Sidon. In the south were Acco and Joppa. The Orontes and the Jordan are the two rivers found in the area and in a sense the Jordan divides the south vertically in two. Moab and Ammon again divided it horizontally in two. Edom lies to the south of Moab. The most important mountains are: Zaphon in the north; Hermon, Lebanon and Carmel in the centre and Nebo in the east. From the last mentioned Moses would observe the promised land while not being allowed to enter it. The area in the south that could be cultivated was relatively small: about 120km wide and 320 km long. This is approximately the size of the Kruger National Park in South Africa. There is a great deal of contrast in this region, with Mt. Hermon at 2700m above sea level and the Dead Sea at 400m below sea level.

Climatically, the region may be divided into mediterranean, steppe and desert regions. Geographically, differentiation may be made between coastal plains, the central Samaritan and Judean highlands, the Jordan Valley, the Trans-Jordan plateau and the desert. The coastal plains were fertile, but the agricultural conditions of the central Judean highlands were not favourable. Finding good ground and water was problematic. There are no large rivers such as in Egypt and Mesopotamia. Olives, vines, wheat and barley were cultivated on a small scale.

30

SECTION B

Introduction to Biblical Hebrew and the world of the Bible

31

32

4. The Hebrew alphabet: consonants 4.1 Excerpt from BHRG 4 Excerpt from: Van der Merwe, CHJ, Naud, JA and Kroeze, JH 1997. A Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar. Stellenbosch: Hebteg Publishers.

4 The alphabet - consonants 4.1 The form of consonants Nr. Name Form Transliterati on Written Pronunciation

Print 1

Final

aleph

/ /

2

bet gimel dalet he waw (vahv) zayin khet tet yod kaph lamed mem nun samekh ayin

/b/ /b/ /g/ /g/ /d/ /d/ /h/ /w/ /z/ / / // /y/ /k/

A very light glottal stop corresponding to the Greek spiritus lenis. Even before a vowel it is lost to the ear (like the h in hour) Bank Never Go Go Door Door Hand Vote Zone Loch Time Year Keep Bach Line Main Noon Silver A hard glottal stop formed at the back of the throat. It may

3

4

5 6 7 8 9 10 11

/k/ /l/ /m/ /n/ /s/ / /

12 13 14 15 16

33

17

pe tsade qoph resh sin shin tav

/p/

be heard in certain pronunciations of words like bottle and battle in which the glottal stop replaces the normal t Pay Face Cats Keep Rope Silver Shoe Time Time

/f/ / / /q/ /r/ / / // /t/ /t/

18 19 20 21 22 23

The Hebrew alphabet consists of 23 characters (some with alternative graphic signs) which represent consonants only. The table above gives the name, form, transliteration and approximate pronunciation of each consonant. Note the following: Hebrew is written from right to left and from the top to the bottom of the page. Transliteration means that a language that has its own distinctive characters is rewritten in the equivalent characters of the Latin or Roman alphabet. In cases where no equivalents exist, special transliteration symbols have been devised with the help of certain diacritical signs: for example, a dot under an h, / / (letter 8), an inverted circumflex on an s, / / (letter 22). The transliteration of Holladay (1971) as used above does not differentiate between /, /, /, / and /. He does differentiate between and . 4.2 Special Features of the Hebrew Consonants 1. Letters with two forms (the final letters or end consonants) Five Hebrew consonants have alternative forms when they appear at the end of a word. Beginning or middle of the word: /( 11), ( 13), ( 14), /( 17), ( 18) End of the word: - - - -

2. Letters with two alternative pronunciations Six of the Hebrew consonants, namely ( 2), ( 3), ( 4), ( 11), ( 17) and ( 23) have allophones. In other words, the same letter is used to indicate either a plosive or a fricative pronunciation.

34

There is, however, no possibility of confusion as the plosives are marked by a diacritical point, the dagesh (Cf. 8.2/1):

b

gh

d

k

p

t

The fricatives are written without the dagesh

w

gh

/ d Bach

/ f

t

The fricative pronunciations of , and have fallen out of current use, and they are pronounced like their plosive counterparts. The distinction between the plosives and the fricatives is clear: The plosives - always contain a dagesh, - always appear after a consonant, - usually occur at the beginning of a word - always without the dagesh

The fricatives

b (e) gh (a) d k (e) f (a) t beghadkefat

3. Letters with homogeneous pronunciation

(3) (4) (1) (2) (8) (9)

and and and and and / and / (16) (6) (11) (23) (19) (21)

like like like like like like like like

g d t v ch t k s

in in in in in in in in

go door time glottal stop never and vote Loch and Bach time keep silver

(23) and

(11) and (15) and

4. Letters with the same place of articulation (i) Gutturals A group of consonants articulated at the back of the throat, namely:

( 1),( 5), ( 8) and ( 16). must not be confused with the English a or Greek alpha (). These two are vowels, while is a consonant.

and are not pronounced at the beginning or at the end of a word. In the middle of a word and are pronounced as a glottal stop, made by the complete stoppage of breath in the throat, almost like the stop between the two es in re-enact.

35

The consonant ( 20) bears certain similarities to the four gutturals and is usually grouped with them. Should certain vowel changes become necessary in a word as, for example, when a plural is formed, the deviation from the norm is predictable within this group of consonants, namely: When a sound rule requires a vowel to be reduced, the vowel attached to a guttural will be reduced to a half vowel. (Cf. 5.2/2(iii).) When a sound rule requires the doubling of a consonant, this doubling will not occur with the gutturals nor in most cases with resh. (Cf. 8.2/2.)

(ii) Dentals/Alveolars A group of consonants articulated when the tongue obstructs the air flow against the upper teeth or alveolar ridge:

/ ( 4), ( 9) and / ( 23) ( 12), ( 14) and ( 20) When a word begins with a dental, the deviation from any customary change in this group is predictable, such as assimilation.1 When a conjugation results in two dentals occurring in immediate succession, the first dental becomes assimilated by the second dental.

5. Letters articulated in a similar fashion (i) Sibilants A group of consonants formed when the speech canal is narrowed and the air stream is forced through with a hissing sound, namely:

( 7), ( 15), ( 18), ( 21) and ( 22) When a word begins with a hissing sound, the deviation is predictable, e.g.: When a conjugation results in a sibilant occurring immediately after a dental, metathesis2 of the sibilant and the dental occurs.

1

Assimilation is a phonological process which usually takes place when one consonant which closes a syllable passes over into another beginning the next syllable, so forming with it a strengthened letter. In this process the sounds of the two consonants are equalized. Note, for example, the case of nasal assimilation in which ten mice is pronounced as tem mice. Assimilation is not restricted to dentals only. Metathesis is a phonological process in which two sounds are reversed, e.g. the use of aks instead of ask.

2

36

(ii) Glides (or semi-vowels) A group of consonants formed when the air flow is obstructed to a limited extent, namely:

( 5), ( 6) and ( 10) The obstruction is so limited that these consonants have more in common with vowels than with consonants. The result is that a vowel and the glide immediately following it sometimes become fused, so that the glide becomes associated with specific vowel sounds. (Cf. 5.1.) e as in there ey as in caf o as in more a as in father

o oo i ey e

as in more as in book as in machine as in caf as in there

In certain cases the ( 1) has lost its consonantal character. In such cases is also associated with specific vocalic sound values:

o a ey

as in more as in father as in caf

BH was originally written with consonants only. This could easily lead to misinterpretations; for example,

could be interpreted as /ym/ (sea) or /ym/ (day). In order to ensure that the reader would distinguish between the forms, one of the abovementioned glides was used with the latter form namely to indicate the presence of an [] vowel between the two consonants: . This ensured the reading of the latter form as /ym/. The form without the glide was read as /ym/. When the glides (, and )and represent vowels and not consonants, they are called vowel indicators (matres lectionis, mothers of reading). (Cf. 5.2/2(i).)

4.2 Remarks

1. In the same way that counting from 1 to 10 is essential to be able to do sums, so one has to learn the alphabet in order to be able to read Hebrew. Fortunately, it is not Arabic. In Arabic each letter has three forms: one for the beginning of a word, one for when it stands between other letters and for at the end of the word. Learn the alphabet in its correct order; otherwise, you will not be able to use a dictionary. 2. BH has no capitals

37

4.3 Exercise: consonants 4.3.1 Fill in the missing consonants in Hebrew script Nr. Name Form Pronunciation

Final 1

aleph

A very light glottal stop corresponding to the Greek spiritus lenis. Even before a vowel it is lost to the ear (like the h in hour) Bank

2

bet gimel dalet he waw (vahv) zayin khet tet yod kaph lamed mem nun samekh ayin

Never 3 Go

Go 4 Door

Door 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Hand Vote Zone Loch Time Year Keep

Bach Line Main Noon Silver A hard glottal stop formed at the back of the throat. It may be heard in certain pronunciations of words like bottle and battle in which the glottal stop replaces the normal t Pay

17 18 19 20

pe tsade qoph resh

Face Cats Keep Rope

38

21 22 23

sin shin tav

Silver Shoe Time Time

4.3.2 Write down the Hebrew alphabet in the correct order and give each letter its name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

39

4.3.3 Answer the following questions: Which five BH consonants have two forms? 1. ___________________________________________________________ 2. What is a begadkefat lettter? ___________________________________________________________ 3. What is a guttural? Name the gutturals in BH. ___________________________________________________________ 4. What is a dental? Name the dentals in BH. ___________________________________________________________ 5. What is a sibilant? Name the sibilants in BH. ___________________________________________________________ 6. What is a glide? Name the glides in BH. ___________________________________________________________ 7. What is a vowel indicator? Name the vowel indicators in BH. ___________________________________________________________

4.3.4 Transliteration and identification of consonants

1. Transliterate the consonants of Ezekiel 38:12

________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 2. 3. Identify all the consonants with a special final form in the above text. ___________________________________________________________ What do each of the following groups of consonants have in common?

---

40

5. The Hebrew alphabet: vowels 5.1 Excerpt: BHRG 5 Excerpt from: Van der Merwe, CHJ, Naud, JA and Kroeze, JH 1999. A Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar. Sheffield. Sheffield Academic Press.

BHRG 5. The AlphabetVowels A group of Jewish scholars, the Masoretes, did important work between 600 and 1000 CE in preserving and transmitting the text of the Hebrew Bible. Three groups of Masoretes were active, working in Babylon, Palestine and Tiberias. Their most important task was transmitting the consonantal text with the utmost accuracy. To ensure that the oral tradition did not weaken further and to combat uncertainty, they devised vowel signs (or points) and added them to the consonantal text. The tradition from Tiberias, the so-called Tiberian vocalization, is used in the BHS. When the Masoretes introduced the system of vowel signs, BH had already been reduced to writing in consonants. The vowel indicators were then added to these. (Cf. 4.2/5(ii).) The text was left unchanged and the vowel signs were simply added to the existing letters. In most cases a vowel sign was placed under a consonant, in one case above the consonant and in others next to the consonant. In BH the consonant is normally read first followed by the vowel accompanying it.

BHRG 5.1. The Form of the Hebrew Vowels The signs that represent vowels are given in the table below (always after the letter or ). The combination of vowel signs and vowel indicators is also given. Nr. 1 2 3 4 qmets patakh hateph patakh hlem Name Form Transliteration / / // /a/ /a/ / / // /o/ /o/ Pronunciation

,        , ,      

father or cup father or cup father or cup more or pose

5 6

qmets hatuph hateph qmets

h ot h ot

41

7 8

tsre

,   ,                   

/ / // /e/ // of /ey/ // of /eh/ /e/ // /u/ /i/ // /e/

caf3

seghol

pen

9 10 11 12 13

hateph seghol shureq qibbuts hreq shwa

pen p ut p ut h it above

BHRG 5.2. The Classification of Vowels and their Characteristics

1. The classification of vowels It is generally held that the Tiberian vowel system indicated only the sound value or quality of a particular vowel but that it did not give a reliable representation of its length or quantity. The Tiberian vowels are classified phonologically by some grammarians as follows: (i) Short vowels

(2), (5=o), (8), (11) and (12) (ii) Changeable (ordinary) long vowels

(1=A), ( 4), (7) (iii) Unchangeable long vowels (12), , , (7), , (8), , (1), , , ( 4), ( 10) (iv) Extra short vowelsalso referred to as half vowels

(3), (6), (9), (13) 2. Characteristics of vowels (i) Vowel indicators (matres lectionis) It was stated in 4.2.5(ii) that the glides (, and )and could represent consonants as well as specific vowels, i.e. they could be used as vowel indicators; for example:

for //, // and // for // and // for //, // and / (as seghol)/

3. In American circles the tsre is pronounced as -ey as in they. According to JoonMuraoka 6h, the tsre must be pronounced as the -e- in pen.

42

Therefore, in the text vocalized by the Masoretes, the , , and could sometimes represent a consonant and sometimes a vowel. The Masoretes resolved this ambiguity through their vowel system as follows: In BH every consonant within a word must be accompanied by a vowel sign except for the final consonant of a word, which does not necessarily have to be accompanied by a vowel sign. When one of these glides represented a consonant, the Masoretes simply placed a vowel sign beneath it. Where a glide represented a vowel indicator the Masoretes combined their own vowel sign with the vowel indicator. In other words, when one of these four letters follows another consonant and only one vowel sign accompanies the two characters, the second character is functioning as a vowel indicator.

, , and are used as vowel indicators solely in combination with specific vowel signs as indicated in 5.1.

Examples: In the word the is not a consonant. If it were a consonant, then and , (1) two consonants, would stand next to each other without being separated by a vowel. This would be unacceptable in BH. (Cf. 7.1/2.) The must therefore be regarded as a vowel indicator in this case. (2) The at the end of a word such as may be regarded as a vowel indicator. In the must be understood as a full consonant. Should it be regarded as a vowel indicator, it would mean that two vowels would stand next to each other, which is unacceptable in BH. (Cf. 7.1/2.) The is used as a vowel indicator only at the end of the word, for example, . (Cf. also 9.2.) In the word a vowel follows the within a word and thus cannot be regarded as a vowel indicator. There can be no confusion with the as a new sign is always created when the vowel and the vowel indicator are joined, namely and .

(3) (4) (5)

The unchangeable long vowels are formed in combination with the vowel indicators. (Cf. 5.2/1(iii).) (ii) Full and defective mode of writing In some instances a vowel may be represented by two different forms simultaneously. This is due to the fact that vowel signs were added to the text only after it had been fixed in consonants and vowel indicators. In some words a vowel indicator was used to refer to a particular vowel even before the Masoretic vocalization. During the vocalization another vowel sign referring to the same vowel was added to the vowel indicator. When a vowel sign is combined with a vowel indicator in this way, one speaks of the full mode of writing or scriptio plena. If the vowel is written without a vowel indicator, one speaks of the defective mode of writing or scriptio defectiva. There is no difference in the pronunciation of the two modes of writing.

43

The same word can sometimes be written in the full and sometimes in the defective mode of writing, e.g.: or (iii) The distribution of the half vowels The first vowel of some words is a half vowel, namely an audible shwa, e.g.:

It was stated in 4.2/4(i) that a deviation from the customary change is predictable with the gutturals (, , and ). One of the characteristics of the gutturals is that they may not be vocalized with the audible shwa. Instead of the audible shwa the gutturals are vocalized with hateph vowels. The hateph vowels are also half vowels. The Masoretic signs for the hateph vowels are a combination of the shwa sign with the patakh, seghol and qmets. This produces the hateph vowels, namely: hateph patakh (3) hateph qmets (6) hateph seghol (9)

---

The question may arise as to which one of the hateph vowels takes the place of the shwa. In the case of the examples above the hateph vowel is part of the actual composition of each word and must be learned as such. In other cases a sound rule may require the pronunciation of an audible shwa. immediately after a guttural. A hateph patakh usually replaces the shwa in such a case, e.g. ( Ps 27:14).

5.2 Exercises: vowels 5.2.1 Recognising the pronunciation of BH vowels Give the correct pronunciation for the following vowels Nr. Name Form Transliteration / / // /a/ /a/ / / // /o/ /o/ Pronunciation

1

qmets

 ,       ,   ,    

2 3 4

patakh hateph patakh hlem

5 6

qmets hatuph hateph qmets

44

7 8

tsre seghol

,   ,                   

/ / // /e/ // of /ey/ // of /eh/ /e/ // /u/ /i/ // /e/

9 10 11 12

hateph seghol shureq qibbuts hreq

13

audible shwa

5.2.2 Graphical representation of BH vowels Fill in the correct vowel under the consonant Nr. Name Form Transliteration / / // /a/ /a/ / / // /o/ /o/ / / // /e/ // of /ey/ // of /eh/ /e/ // /u/ /i/ // Pronunciation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

qmets patakh hateph patakh hlem qmets hatuph hateph qmets tsre seghol

father or cup father or cup father or cup more h ot h ot caf4 pen

9 10 11 12

hateph seghol shureq qibbuts hreq

pen p ut p ut h it

4. In American circles the tsre is pronounced as -ey as in they. According to JoonMuraoka 6h, the tsre must also be pronounced as the -e- in pen.

45

13

audible shwa

/e/

above

5.2.3 Recognising the names of BH vowels Fill in the names of the following vowels: Nr. Name Form Transliteration / / // /a/ /a/ / / // /o/ /o/ / / // /e/ // of /ey/ // of /eh/ /e/ // /u/ /i/ // /e/ Pronunciation

1 2 3 4

,        , ,           ,   ,                   

father or cup father or cup father or cup more

5 6 7 8

h ot h ot caf5 pen

9 10 11 12

pen p ut p ut h it

13

above

5.2.4 Assorted exercises Answer the following questions: 1. How would you know if , , and are consonants or vowel indicators in the following words?

---

5. In American circles the tsre is pronounced as -ey as in they. According to JoonMuraoka 6h, the tsre must also be pronounced as the -e- in pen.

46



---

2. What is it called when the Biblical Hebrew word for good can be written in two ways, i.e. or ? ________________________________________________________________ 3. (i) What is shwa? _________________________________________________________________ (ii) What is a hateph vowel? _________________________________________________________________ (iii) What is the relationship between the two types of vowels? _________________________________________________________________ (iv) Name the three types of hateph vowels _________________________________________________________________

5.2.5 Reading ability and the recognition of vowels Answer the following questions 1. Pronounce the following words: 2. Identify the following from the list above: words with one changeable long vowel: ___________________ words with two changeable long vowels: __________________ words where consonants are used as vowel indicators:_______ _______________________________________________________ words with two short vowels____________________________ words with one short vowel ____________________________ words with half vowels _____________________________

3. Read the following excerpt from 1 Sam 3 aloud:

3 4 5 6

47

48

6. Diphthongs, accentuation and Masoretic signs 6.1 Excerpt: BHRG 6-7 6 and 7 are an excerpt from: Van der Merwe, CHJ, Naud, JA and Kroeze, JH 1999. n Bybels-Hebreeuse Naslaangrammatika. Stellenbosch: Hebteg Publishers.

BHRG 6. Diphthongs Diphthongs are sounds formed when two different vowels are combined into one syllable. In BH diphthongs may be formed in two ways:

BHRG 6.1. With and after a Vowel When a follows certain vowels, they are pronounced as diphthongs. In the following table the diphthong is written after the consonant as an example: Consonant Combination Pronunciation tie sky boy gluey

BHRG 6.2. The transitional patakh or furtive patakh

1. Characteristics The consonants , and are articulated by moving the base of the tongue in the direction of the wall of the throat. This unusual articulation at the end of a closed syllable (cf. 7.1/1) is strenuous. The vowel that produces the least stress on the speech organs in pronouncing or at the end of a closed syllable is the a ([A] or [a]), e.g.

and

When one of the other long vowels appears before , and in the last syllable, a transitional vowel or glide element becomes necessary to facilitate pronunciation. In these cases the patakh is utilized as the transitional vowel. Not r, but rua Not k but ka It is important to note that this patakh does not begin a new syllable, but only denotes a transition in the current syllable. The combination of the preceding vowel with the patakh creates a diphthong before the final consonant. The furtive patakh is written as follows:

and

49

Although the patakh is written after the final consonant, it is pronounced between this consonant and vowel preceeding it. This patakh is called the transitional patakh or furtive patakh (the patakh that slides in). 2. The distribution of the furtive patakh The furtive patakh is a short [a]-sound that occurs at the end of a word when: The final consonant of a word is , and and the preceding long vowel is not a patakh or a qmets, e.g.:

and

but were not originally furnished with a patakh, the insertion of the Because en in and furtive patakh became necessary. In , however, the is preceded by a patakh and the insertion of the furtive patakh is thus unnecessary.

BHRG 7. Syllables and Accents BHRG 7.1. Types of Syllables

1. Open and closed syllables The word syllable denotes a combination of consonants and vowels that produces a word or a segment of a word in a single effort of articulation, i.e. the smallest grouping of sounds in a word that can be pronounced as a unit. The following distinctions are usually made with regard to syllables: Open syllables Closed syllables An open syllable consists of a consonant and a vowel. A closed syllable consists of a consonant-vowel-consonant.

Open syllable go CV spa CCV mi-ni CV-CV

Closed syllable got CVC spank CCVCC mind-ful CVCC-CVC

2. Hebrew syllables Every language has its own rules according to which vowels and consonants are combined into syllables. In English, for example, a cluster of two consonants always occurs at the beginning or end of a syllable, as in blank or art. The following rules apply to syllables in Hebrew: A syllable always begins with a consonant. (Cf. 31.1/1 for an exception.) A syllable may be open or closed. There are usually no consonant clusters within a syllable, i.e. a syllable begins with only one consonant and a closed syllable ends with only one consonant.

50

3. Examples of syllables in BH words: (1) (2) (3) (4) One open syllable: One closed syllable: Two open syllables: Two syllables, one open, one closed:

  -  - 

<

<

BHGR 7.2. Accentuation

1. Rules The following rules may serve as broad guidelines for accentuation in BH: In a word the accent usually falls on the final (ultimate) syllable. In words with the vowel pattern / /, / /, / / of / / the accent falls on the second-last (penultimate) syllable. In a clause the accent usually falls on the stressed syllable of the last word.

The stressed syllable is referred to as the tone syllable and the two preceding it as the pretonic and the propretonic syllables respectively. 2. Examples The Masoretes designed a system for noting the accentuation of all the words in BH. This complex system is dealt with in 9.5. Where it becomes essential to indicate the accentuation of a particular word, this grammar will use the sign [<] to mark the accented syllable, e.g.: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

/ / / / / / /

3. Additional or secondary accentuation In BH certain words have a secondary accent. Words consisting of three syllables, with the primary accent on the final syllable, often receive a secondary accent on the third or last syllable. The Masoretic sign that indicates secondary accent is a vertical line to the left of the first vowel. This sign is called the metheg (cf. 9.1) and denotes that the word concerned receives a secondary or additional accent, e.g.:

   = - -

51

BHRG 7.3. The Distribution of Vowels in Syllables There is a clear correlation between the classification of the Masoretic vowel signs and their use in syllables: (i) Half vowels always occur in open, unaccented syllables, e.g.

(ii)

his name

Short vowels usually occur in closed, unaccented syllables, e.g.

(iii)

desert

Short vowels can also occur in open, accented syllables, e.g.

(iv)

Cain

Long vowels usually occur in open syllables regardless of whether the syllable is accented or not, e.g.

(v)

He built

Long vowels can also occur in closed, accented syllables, e.g.

desert

6.2 Exercise: Masoretic signs Read the excerpt form BHRG 6-7 and answer the following questions: 1. What is a diphthong? ________________________________________________ 2. Between which types of diphthongs does BH distinguish? Give an example of each and be certain that you can pronounce them.________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 3. What is the difference between open and closed syllables?__________________ _________________________________________________________________ 4. Where is the accent usually placed in BH? ______________________________

____________________________________ ? 5. Where is it placed in this word

52

6.3 Masoretic signs BHRG 8 Masoretic signs with a double function BHRG 8.1 The shwa

1. The audible shwa The shwa has already been mentioned as the sign for the half vowels as in

=

Judah

This shwa is called an audible shwa. It forms the vowel in an open syllable The distribution of the audible shwa can be determined as follows: The shwa is audible in the first syllable of a word such as in

Note the following: (1)

=

---

The shwa is audible after a syllable with a long vowel such as in: =

Should two audible shwa be found in two consecutive open syllables, they fuse into - /, e.g. one (half-) closed syllable with the vowel /

 *

(2)

becomes

If the second open syllable begins with the consonant , the loses its consonantal value and becomes a vowel indicator, e.g.

  *

(3)

becomes

If a guttural with a hateph vowel is preceded by an open syllable with an audible shwa as vowel, this open syllable takes the full vowel corresponding to the hateph vowel, e.g.

• 2. The silent shwa

becomes

The shwa is also used for another purpose, namely to note the end of a closed syllable in a word, such as = - This shwa is called the silent shwa or shwa quiescens. It is an orthographical aid used to indicate a closed syllable and the absence of a vowel in that position. The distribution of the silent shwa can be determined as follows: The shwa is usually silent after a short vowel, e.g.

Note the following:

=

Where two audible shwas occur next to each other in a word, the first is silent and the second one audible.

53

BHRG 8.2. The dagesh 1. The plosive dagesh or dagesh lene The dagesh has already been encountered as the diacritical point that occurs only in the begadkefat letters and which distinguishes the plosives from the fricatives. (Cf. 4.2/2.) This form of the dagesh is called the plosive dagesh or dagesh lene (weak dagesh). The distribution of the plosive dagesh may be determined as follows: It usually occurs at the beginning of a word, as in:

It follows a closed syllable, as in

2. The doubling dagesh or dagesh forte The dagesh is also used for another purpose, namely to indicate the doubling of a consonant:

instead of - This form of the dagesh is called the doubling dagesh or the dagesh forte (strong dagesh). The consonant which is doubled is written only once and then punctuated with the doubling dagesh. The doubled consonant thus simultaneously ends one syllable and begins the next one. The distribution of the strong dagesh may be determined as follows: The dagesh found in consonants that follow a vowel is a doubling dagesh. This vowel is usually short.

= - BHRG 8.3 The qmets 1. Different phonetic values (different pronunciations) The qmets sign indicates two possible sound values: a as in the English word father o as in the English word hot The latter is called the qmets hatuph. 2. Distribution The distribution of the qmets and the qmets hatuph can be determined as follows: The - occurring in open or closed accented syllables is the qmets. The - occurrring in closed, unaccented syllables is the qmets hatuph. Wherever uncertainty may arise concerning the correct interpretation of the - , the metheg is used whenever the syllable concerned has a secondary accent and is vocalized with a qmets.

3. Examples of distribution (1) (2) The first syllable is open and unaccented; the vowel is a qmets, e.g.

54

The last syllable is closed but accented; the vowel is a qmets, e.g.

(3) The syllable is closed but accented; the vowel is a qmets, e.g.

-  -    -   

(4) The first syllable is open and accented; the vowel is a qmets, e.g. (5) The first syllable is closed and unaccented; the vowel is a qmets hatuph, e.g.

6.4 Exercise: Masoretic signs Answer the following questions

1. a. b. c. d. e. How can you tell if a silent or an audible shwa appears in the following words?

---

What is the difference between a plosive and the doubling dagesh?

---

3. a. b. c d. e.

Identify the plosive and the doubling dageshes in the following words:

---

4. a. b. c. d.

How can you tell if it is a qmets or a qmets hatuph in the following words?:

 _____________________________________________________________      _____________________________________________________________     _____________________________________________________________   ____________________________________________________________  

55

56

7. Geography and Worldview 7.1 Worldview Vocabulary 1 1 2 120x 2602x

construct state God; God of /gods of

(day)light God, gods

3

2504x

 to the ground;    territories

land, ground, earth, territory (f)

4 5 6 7

396x 581x 421x 134x

sea, west, lake water(s)

heavens of

heavens, skies sun

57

PowerPoint 6 The way in which people in biblical times viewed the world is markedly different from the way people in the 21st century view it. For them, the world was not round but a flat disc, the heavens spanned this flat disc like a dome, the earth did not move around the sun, and fountains were not formed by rainwater which were dammed up by rock formations. What these peoples view of the world really was, is difficult to determine. The world of Old Mesopotamia may be presented as follows:

According to Gen 1, God created the heavens and the earth . The earth was flat and beneath it was the under-world . Everything was surrounded by water . (Ex 20:4 and the water under the earth). The people of the Bible conceived of the earth as standing on pillars in the water (1 Sam 2:8 for the pillars are the LORDS and He set the world on them). According to Gen 1, God differentiated between the dry land and the sea . The sun gave the light in the day .

7.2 Division of time Vocabulary 2 8 213x

the light of the morning

morning

9 10 11 12 13 14

283x 2301x 227x 74x 134x 876x

month, new moon

days

day night place of sunrise, east evening

   head of the year

the new year

year

Powerpoint 7 In contrast to today, a year began in September/October for the people of the Bible. A year was also divided into 12 months. A month began with the new moon and was either 29 or 30 days long. As a lunar year is 11 days shorter than a sun year, a thirteenth month was introduced from time to time. A day began with sunrise in the . The sun shone by day. According to Gen 1:16 on the fourth day God created the big lights: the large one to rule over the day and the smaller light to rule over the night . Gen 1:19 says: And it was evening and it was morning , the fourth day. 58

7.3 Geography of Israel (See 1.3.3 Israel) Vocabulary 3 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 222x 71x 558x 270x 119x 137x 320x ground, earth

hills the mountains

hill mountain, hill country wilderness, desert

currents, rivers

river stream, riverbed, wadi

fields

field, territory

Vocabulary 4 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 183x 96x 137x 274x 800x 1087x 101x cattle, herd donkey

mare

horse small livestock, flocks (sheep and goats)

slaves, slavery    towns, cities

slave, servant town, city, inhabitants of a city (f) hunger, famine

PowerPoint 8 Reference has already been made to the problem surrounding the name of the Holy Land. The area to which we refer here as the land of Israel consisted of two kingdoms after the empire was divided in 922 BC: Israel in the north (with Samaria as capital) and Judah in the south (with Jerusalem as capital). Although the land is relatively small, geographically it may be divided as follows:

7.3.1 The coastal plain The coastal plain stretches from Tyre in the north to the "the stream of Egypt in the south. The plain may also be divided into three areas. The plain of Acco, which stretches from a mountain 20 km north of Acco to Mount Carmel . This was the only place where the coastal plain was interrupted by a mountain . The plain of Sharon stretches from Carmel to Joppa. Here the plain is about 20 km wide and is fruitful. Between Joppa and the plain becomes 150 km wide.

59

The lowland in the south is desert, but the northern section is fertile and suitable for agriculture. The Philistine cities of Ekron, Gaza, Ashdod, Gat and Ashkelon are situated here. Judg 15:4-5 reflects the agricultural activities that happened around these cities.

7.3.2 The highlands of Judah and Ephraim (Samaria) Towards the east, the coastal plain changes into hill country. A hill in BH is called a . The hill country changes into the Judean and Ephraimitic highlands. This highland runs parallel to the coastal plain in the west and the Jordan in the east. The Jordan is the only perennial river in the area. The Judean highland rises like an island in the south. It consists mainly of limestone rocks and has sparce vegetation. Only in the valleys, where ground from the mountain slopes has been washed down, is agriculture possible. The eastern slopes of the Judean highlands fall in the rain shadow of the mountains. The area between the mountain ledge and the Dead Sea forms a desert , the Judean desert. It was to this desert that David fled when Saul was persecuting him (1 Sam 24:1). The southern highlands of Judah descend onto a moon landscape of barren hills, the Negev . Here the Amalekites established themselves, according to Num 13:29. Approximately 17 km north of Jerusalem the rough mountain terrain becomes hilly. More valleys are found in the Ephraimitic highland than in the Judean highland. A valley plain in Ephraim is usually not as deep as a valley (or gorge) in Judah. This area, that later would become the kingdom of Israel, is for this reason more passable than Judah. The highest mountains are Ebal and Gerisim. These two mountains form the valley where Shechem is situated. Shechem was for a considerable period the capital of the land after the Israelites invaded Canaan.

7.3.3 The plain of Jezreel
This plain (also known as the plain of Megiddo) lies to the north of the Ephraimitic highland and extends as far as the hills of Galilee in the north. In the west it becomes the plain of Acco divided by a mountain range that stretches from the Galilean highlands. To the east, the plain becomes the Jordan Valley. Outside the city of Jezreel a farmer like Naboth was able to aquire a field and plant vineyards . This plain was a natural thoroughfare for the powers from the south (Egyptians, Philistines), north (Assyrians and Babylonians) and east (Midianites and Aramaeans) and many battles were fought here. According to Revelation 16:16, the final battle of the nations shall also take place here. Armageddon means mountain of Megiddo.

7.3.4 The Jordan Valley The Jordan river has its source in the Lebanon and Hermon Mountains, flowing down to the Sea of Galilee. From here it flows 105 km further south to the Dead Sea. This is the section of the Jordan which is mostly mentioned in the Bible. On its western side are the hills of Galilee in the north and the Ephraimitic highlands in the south with the plain of Jezreel in between. To the eastern side lie the highlands of Gilead, 600m higher than the Jordan. The Jordan Valley is 6 km wide in the north, 11 km at the Jezreel Plain and 22 km in the south. In this southern section of the valley is the city of Jericho. In the valley itself differentiation is made between the valley plain, the low terraces and the riverbed. The valley

60

plain is very brackish in places, but large areas are cultivated. The lower terraces are mainly silt soil and are overgrown. The river itself is not very deep: about 1 meter at the drifts and up to 3.6 meters in other places. It has many curves and sand banks appear regularly. At places it can be as wide as 30 meters. The Dead Sea is 85 km long and 15 km wide. A quarter of the sea consists of salt. The southern area of the Dead Sea is barren desert .

7.3.5 The Eastern Jordan region (Transjordan-plateau) The Jarmuk in the north, the Jabbok in the middle and the Arnon in the south divides this fertile highland into three parts. The plateau north of the Jarmuk is volcanic ground. Directly east of the Jordan the landscape is so fragmented that it is not suitable for cultivation. However, it is excellent for pasturing. Towards the east and south the ground consists of eroded lava, which is very fertile. The region is known as Bashan (Amos 4:1 mentions the cows of Bashan) and is considered today to be the granary of Palestine. The region of the Jarmuk to beyond the Jabbok is called Gilead. The Arnon River in the south forms the border of Moab. A characteristic of this whole highland is its beautiful pastures. 2 Kgs 3:4 reports on the hundred thousand sheep of King Mesha of Moab.

7.4 Exercise: Recognition of BH lexemes (geography) Fill in the missing English equivalents: 1. According to the Bible made the and the .. However, . . The earth was flat and under the earth was the everything was surrounded by .... (Ex 20:4 and the water was under the earth). For the people of the Bible the earth stood on pillars in the waters (1 Sam 2:8 for the pillars are the LORDS and He set the world on them). According to Gen 1, God made a distinction between the dry ground and the .. . The .. gave .. during the day.

 . in the 2. The coastal plain stretches from Tyre in the north to the   south. The plain of Acco stretches from a mountain 20 km north of Acco to       . This was the only place where the coastal plain was interrupted by a   . .

3. The coastal plain changes towards the east into hill country. A .. in BH is called a . The hill country changes into the Judean and Ephraimitic highlands. This highland runs parallel to the coastal plain in the west and the in the east. The Jordan is the only perennial river in the area. 4. The highlands of .. rise like an island in the south. It consists mainly of from limestone rocks and has sparse vegetation. Only in the valleys, where the mountain slopes has been washed down, is agriculture possible. The eastern slopes of the Judean highlands fall in the rain shadow of the mountains. The area between the ., the Judean . It was to this mountain ledge and the Dead Sea forms a that David fled when Saul was persecuting him (1 Sam 24:1). The southern highlands of Judah descend onto a moon landscape of barren hills, the .

61

Approximately 17 km north of Jerusalem the rough mountain terrain becomes hilly. More valleys are found in the Ephraimitic highland than in the Judean highland. A valley plain in Ephraim is usually not as deep as valley (or gorge) in Judah. The area, that later would become the kingdom of Israel, is for this reason more passable than Judah. The highest mountains are Ebal and Gerisim. These two mountains form the valley. where is situated. Shechem was for a considerable period the capital of the .after the Israelites invaded Canaan. The plain of ............. (also known as the plain of Megiddo) lies to the north of the Ephraimitic highland and extend as far as the hills of Galilee in the north. In the west it becomes the plain of Acco and is divided by a mountain range that stretches from the Galilean highlands. To the east, the plain becomes the Jordan Valley. Outside the city of and planted a vineyard. Jezreel a farmer like Naboth was able to acquire

7.5 Exercise: Recognizing BH lexemes (division of time) Fill in the missing English equivalents: Contrary to today, a .. started in September/October for the people of the Bible. A year was also divided into 12 months. A .. began with the new moon and was either 29 or 30 days long. As a lunar year was 11 days shorter than a sun year, a thirteenth month had to be added from time to time. A began with ... The sun shone during the day. According to Gen 1:16, on the fourth day God created two big lights: the larger one to rule over the day and the smaller light to rule over the night . Gen 1:19 says: And it was evening .and it was morning ., the fourth day.

62

63

64

8. Cultural History I Vocabulary 5 29 30 345x 781x

 tents    women, wives (irreg.

plural)

tent woman, wife

31 32 33 34 35

284x 270x 297x 76x 67x

covenant, treaty, agreement meat, flesh, relatives

also

bread, food animal property, livestock

tombs

tomb

Vocabulary 6 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 270x 54x 229x 141x 92x 119x 193x

stones

stone (f) honey seed (of the field), off-spring, descendants wine vineyard fruit oil

8.1 The world of the patriarchs Powerpoint 9 It is difficult to determine exactly when the patriarchs lived. Historians use a date of between 2000 and 1550 BC. This is the time of the Middle Kingdom in Egypt , when Hammurabi and his Ancient Babylonian Kingdom ruled and the city of Mari experienced a golden age. According to Gen 12-50, Abraham , Isaac and Jacob were seminomads. Abraham moved from Mesopotamia to Canaan . Due to famine in the land he and Sarah moved to Egypt. According Gen 12:16, Pharaoh gave Abraham many presents to win his favour. He thought that Sarah was Abrahams sister. The gifts included small livestock , cattle , donkeys , slaves and camels. It is interesting that Abraham did not have a horse . Horses only came into use in Israel in the time of Solomon (950 BC).

65

PowerPoint 10 Abraham and Lot moved to Egypt together. They traveled together through the to Beth-el and Ai . This was at the place where the Judean highlands change to the lower hills of the Ephraimitic highlands. They had a great deal of livestock (this included large and small livestock) and conflict quickly arose between the herdsmen. Lot eventually moved eastwards to the Jordan Valley and Abraham went southwards to Hebron on the Judean Highland. At one stage Abraham went to Gerar closer to the coastal plain (Gen 20) and also further towards the south as far as Beer-Sheba (Gen 21). At this time there was typical conflict between the semi-nomads, i.e. Abraham and Abimelech regarding the use of waterholes. Later, Abraham moved back to Hebron (according to Gen 23:2). Characteristic of the stories about the patriarchs is the manner in which they often moved and needed to negotiate water rights (Gen 26), the purchase of a grave for Sarah (Gen 23) and the finding of a wife for Isaac (Gen 24) and Jacob (Gen 28). Isaacs servant and Jacob journeyed as far as Paddan-Aram in the north of Syro-Palestine. Later when the sons of Jacob grazed his small livestock it was from Hebron , to Shechem and as far as Dothan in the north. This covered the whole area of the Judean and Ephraimitic highlands. One could expect that within the cultural milieu within which the patriarchs lived, more settled communities would be threatened by the nomadic tribes, but instead a certain reciprocal co-operation would develop, making survival possible for all concerned. Alliances had to constantly be made and a treaty had to be kept. Hospitality towards strangers was also an obligation (according to Gen 18). The patriarchs mainly lived in conical tents . These had pole frames, across which tent material was hung. Originally the tents were made of animal skins but were later woven from mohair. Tent ropes and pegs had to keep the material of the tent taut. People ate relatively little meat . Bread made from barley or wheat was their staple diet. The most important byproduct from their flocks was milk, from which butter, sour milk and cheese was made. Of the fruit that was eaten as side dishes, olives, figs, dates and grapes were the most important. Olive trees and vineyards grew well in the Judean highlands. Olives were not only eaten, but were also used to make oil . They also had a cosmetic function. Wine was made from the grapes. Honey was considered to be a delicacy that was eaten alone or used as a sweetener to be enjoyed with other dishes. Wheat was pounded into flour with a wooden mortar. Sometimes a grinding stone or a handmill was used. A distinction is made between ordinary flour and fine flour. The latter was not flour with a finer texture but was made with the more healthy kernel that remained in the sift after the ordinary flour had been sifted out. It was usually used in baking for special occasions. Bread was often baked on a hot stone . When people were ready to eat, the food was placed on a table. Diners sat with crossed legs on chairs or on the floor. We do not know much about the religious pr