Are there moral/spiritual universals in biblical cultures?
Part of series Biblical background
Recently, in a training workshop in Guadalajara, Mexico I was trying to make the point that we sometimes (mistakenly) think not only of the biblical text, but of the biblical cultures which produced them, as sacred. This, I posited, is often an understandable extension of wanting to take the text as seriously as possible. But if we think about it a moment, many if not most of us would admit that the Bible could just as easily been given to us in any other cultures in the world, at any other times, than it was in fact given. The biblical cultures themselves are not sacred, but rather are merely the carriers of something much more vital and universal than they themselves are (i.e., special revelation). Here it is tempting to use the analogy to the Bible itself being merely a witness to something also much bigger than itself, but let us leave that issue aside for the moment.
Hector Molano, one of the training participants, then posed what I thought was a brilliant question (my paraphrase): "But in fact the scriptures were given in these cultures and not others. So is there something we can rescue from them that is universal?" He was not saying (I think) that we somehow need to strip the cultural components from the text and preserve the pearls of truth inside, as is often put forward as the way to preserve the sacredness of the text while admitting the cultural relativity of its human container. He was rather confronting head-on the truth (it seems to me) that we cannot ever fully separate the cultural component of scripture from its textual expression, or most times even do it very well at all. The text is fully embedded in cultural assumptions which must be not only understood but at some level accepted and experienced (simulated and embodied) in order to access the text meaningfully.
Some, perhaps still trying to find pearls of universal wisdom under the cloaks of biblical cultures, will point to the ten commandments as where at least moral universals can be found. Here we must be on moral bedrock, since the commandments are so general and so final (written on stone, after all). And we also find such statements in the code of Hammurabi and elsewhere, evidence (for many) of the universality of basic (God-given, presumably) human cross-cultural values. At least they carry us beyond the level of lex talionis.
But critics have pointed out that the ten commandments are basically a defense of (ancient) bourgeois values, specifically property rights (implicitly including women as property). While this may seem a rather petty or ideological critique to some, it is certainly true that the ten commandments do not encompass the whole of morality even in the Hebrew Bible, and many would argue that neither do they represent the height of that morality, in spite of their fame (see below).
Others will boil this ancient moral code down to the (second) Greatest Commandment: "Love your neighbor as yourself." Again the generality, finality, and universality (something similar is found in all major religions, we are told) of the commandment are cited as evidence of the centrality of this as well as its supra-cultural relevance. We will leave aside as well for the moment (yet point out the fact that) the fact that the Greatest Commandment is actually to love God with all your heart, soul, and strength (Deu 6:5, the NT authors all add "mind" or an equivalent).
"Love your neighbor" does seem to solve the problem of representing bourgeois property values, but is perhaps too general and too subjective for many. It may help that in the context of one of the presentations of this commandment the "neighbor" is defined by the Parable of the Good Samaritan. But again this Parable is so embedded in its cultural context that it requires a footnote at the least to explain the principle (your neighbor is anyone and everyone) at stake.
Still others have looked for more specific traces of the universal in the particular (for the general concept, see Aristotle). The repeated emphasis in defending the "widow, orphan and stranger" in the Hebrew Bible is often cited by those who want to find an culturally embedded principle (another sort of pearl?) which has universal relevance. Exegetes have pointed out that these categories of persons should be understood in their cultural contexts as those who lacked legal representation in ancient Israel. Thus we would need to defend those in our current cultures who occupy similar situations in order to apply the biblical universal. But this kind of cultural translation is still not well-known in the churches. Thus not many readers of the Bible in the U.S.A. today would accept using these texts to defend an immigration policy defending undocumented aliens as the modern equivalent of Old Testament "strangers." Perhaps they should, but so far this level of scrutiny of the biblical text to try to understand its cultural context has not been a part of any church tradition that I know of.
What do you think? Can we/should we untangle "universals" (spiritual/moral/etc.) from their cultural embeddedness/embodiment in scripture in order to apply them elsewhere? If not, how do we communicate with sufficient clarity and embodiment to stimulate the simulations needed to understand the texts in their cultural contexts?
If so, what would the universals be? The ten commandments, "love your neighbor," or "defend the widow orphan and stranger?" Or some combination? Or something else? Maybe "love your enemy"? Is it possible to discover universal moral (or other) principles from texts which so clearly reveal their cultural embedding? If so, how do we translate these principles (for example, modern "rights" are represented in the Bible as mutual obligations, which is a very different idea, actually)?
Your comments are welcome, as always.
Spanish Translation:
Recientemente, en un taller de capacitación en Guadalajara, México, estaba tratando de señalar que a veces (erróneamente) pensamos no sólo en el texto bíblico, sino en las culturas bíblicas que los produjeron, como sagrados. Esto, planteé, es a menudo una extensión comprensible de querer tomar el texto lo más en serio posible. Pero si pensamos en ello un momento, muchos si no la mayoría de nosotros admitiríamos que la Biblia podría ser fácilmente dada a nosotros en cualquier otra cultura en el mundo, en cualquier otro momento, de lo que de hecho se dio. Las culturas bíblicas en sí mismas no son sagradas, sino que son simplemente portadoras de algo mucho más vital y universal de lo que son ellos mismos (es decir, revelación especial). Aquí es tentador utilizar la analogía con la Biblia misma siendo simplemente un testimonio de algo también mucho más grande que él mismo, pero dejemos ese tema a un lado por el momento.
Héctor Molano, uno de los participantes en la capacitación, planteó entonces lo que pensé que era una pregunta brillante (mi paráfrasis): "Pero de hecho las Escrituras se dieron en estas culturas y no en otras. Entonces, ¿hay algo que podamos rescatar de ellos que sea universal?" Él no estaba diciendo (creo) que de alguna manera necesitamos despojar los componentes culturales del texto y preservar las perlas de la verdad en su interior, como a menudo se plantea como la manera de preservar lo sagrado del texto mientras admitimos la relatividad cultural de su contenedor humano. Él estaba más bien confrontando de frente la verdad (me parece) que nunca podemos separar completamente el componente cultural de las Escrituras de su expresión textual, o la mayoría de las veces incluso hacerlo muy bien en absoluto. El texto está totalmente incrustado en supuestos culturales que deben entenderse no sólo, sino que en algún nivel deben ser aceptados y experimentados (simulados y encarnados) para acceder significativamente al texto.
Algunos, tal vez todavía tratando de encontrar perlas de sabiduría universal bajo los mantos de las culturas bíblicas, señalarán los diez mandamientos como dónde se pueden encontrar al menos universales morales. Aquí debemos estar en la base moral, ya que los mandamientos son tan generales y tan finales (escritos en piedra, después de todo). Y también encontramos tales declaraciones en el código de Hammurabi y en otros lugares, evidencia (para muchos) de la universalidad de los valores interculturales humanos básicos (dados por Dios, presumiblemente). Por los menos nos lleva más allá que el lex talionis.
Pero los críticos han señalado que los diez mandamientos son básicamente una defensa de los valores burgueses (antiguos), específicamente los derechos de propiedad (incluyendo implícitamente a las mujeres como propiedad). Si bien esto puede parecer una crítica bastante mezquina o ideológica para algunos, ciertamente es cierto que los diez mandamientos no abarcan toda la moralidad ni siquiera en la Biblia hebrea, y muchos argumentarían que tampoco representan la altura de esa moralidad, a pesar de su fama (véase más adelante).
Otros condensarán este antiguo código moral al (segundo) Mandamiento más grande: "Ama a tu prójimo como a ti mismo". Una vez más, la generalidad, la finalidad y la universalidad (algo similar se encuentra en todas las religiones principales, se nos dicen) del mandamiento se citan como evidencia de la centralidad de esto, así como de su relevancia supracultural. Dejaremos de lado también por el momento (pero señalemos el hecho de que) el hecho de que el Mandamiento Más Grande sea realmente amar a Dios con todo tu corazón, alma y fuerza (Deu 6:5, los autores de NT añaden "mente" o un equivalente).
"Ama a tu prójimo" parece resolver el problema de representar los valores de la propiedad burguesa, pero es tal vez demasiado general y demasiado subjetivo para muchos. Puede ayudar que en el contexto de una de las presentaciones de este mandamiento el "prójimo" sea definido por la Parábola del Buen Samaritano. Pero una vez más esta Parábola está tan incrustada en su contexto cultural que requiere una nota al menos para explicar el principio (su vecino es cualquiera y todos) en juego.
Otros han buscado rastros más específicos de lo universal en el particular (para el concepto general, véase Aristóteles). El énfasis repetido en la defensa de la "viuda, huérfano y extranjero" en la Biblia hebrea es a menudo citado por aquellos que quieren encontrar un principio culturalmente incrustado (¿otro tipo de perla?) que tiene relevancia universal. Exegetas ha señalado que estas categorías de personas deben entenderse en sus contextos culturales como aquellas que carecían de representación legal en el antiguo Israel. Por lo tanto, tendríamos que defender a aquellos en nuestras culturas actuales que ocupan situaciones similares para aplicar el universal bíblico. Pero este tipo de traducción cultural todavía no es bien conocida en las iglesias. Por lo tanto, no muchos lectores de la Biblia en los EE.UU. hoy aceptarían usar estos textos para defender una política de inmigración que defiende a los extranjeros indocumentados como el equivalente moderno de los "extranjeros" del Antiguo Testamento. Tal vez deberían hacerlo, pero hasta ahora este nivel de escrutinio del texto bíblico para tratar de entender su contexto cultural no ha sido parte de ninguna tradición eclesiástica que yo conozca.
¿Qué les parece? ¿Podemos/debemos desenredar a los "universales" (espirituales/morales/etc.) de su incorporación cultural/encarnación en las escrituras para aplicarlos en otro lugar? Si no, ¿cómo nos comunicamos con suficiente claridad y encarnación para estimular las simulaciones necesarias para entender los textos en sus contextos culturales?
Si es así, ¿cuáles serían los universales? Los diez mandamientos, "ama a tu prójimo", o "defiende a la viuda, huérfano y extranjero?" ¿O alguna combinación? ¿O algo más? ¿Tal vez "ama tu enemigo"? ¿Es posible descubrir principios morales (u otros) universales a partir de textos que revelan tan claramente su incorporación cultural? Si es así, ¿cómo traducimos estos principios (por ejemplo, los "derechos" modernos están representados en la Biblia como obligaciones mutuas, que es una idea muy diferente, en realidad)?


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Hey Bob, quit reading my thoughts! My paper at BT2015 was on space being a universal domain that all speakers engage (use to construct their thoughts/speech/etc.). I think space and time (rather, space-time) are universals domains of experience that we can talk about typologically with some explanatory power. So perhaps a "measurable" place to start would be those spatio-temporal usages of utterances in morally/spiritually salient contexts. But then we would be measuring how different languages make moral/spiritual metaphors from spatio-temporal utterances (which are universal) rather than measuring universal utterances about morality/spirituality themselves. But it could be a place to start. A better place to start (and I think I'll start a video onslaught) would be with violence and the ways it gets ritualized into sacrifice (and now I am of course speaking as a Girardian). I am not aware of any culture that has not started as a religious culture that practiced blood sacrifice. Violence is universal. Religion is universal. Sacrifice is universal. The Bible has a lot to say about these things. But if we pay attention, we see that the Bible does not engage violence, religion, and sacrifice in the way that the Vedas do or the Ba'al cycle or Gilgamesh or Roman gods or Norse gods or American gods (actually this has been the great failure of atheism in the humanities: it lumps the Bible in with all religious texts as just another myth). The Bible isn't like these at all. The Bible moves away from violence in sacrifice (from child sacrifice to animal sacrifice) and then the prophets reveal that God never actually wanted sacrifice in the first place. Then Jesus in the Gospels functions as the anti-sacrifice which ends all sacrifices. Now we are to be living sacrifices. Violence is universal and sacrifice to appease a god's anger is universal. Jesus reveals to us though that this has never been the case. God has always forgiven sinners because he chooses to, not because a sacrificial system forces his hand. There is no god like Jesus in any religious literature. In all sacrifice stories, everyone is convinced that the sacrifice should die. The mob is convinced the victim is guilty and that his death will bring their peace. Jesus exposes this sacrifice for what it actually is: murder. The gospels, unlike all sacrificial myths, show clearly that Jesus is innocent. Every reader of the gospels knows that Jesus does not deserve to be treated as a criminal and executed (and so did Pilate and the Roman soldier). In this way, Jesus exposes the universal lie that all cultures are based on: that killing one can bring peace to many, that sacrifice can work. Sacrifice ultimately does not work. God's forgiveness comes from his kindness, not from his satisfied blood lust. Jesus proves this when he asks the Father to forgive his murders. He says that they can be forgiven because they do not understand what they are doing. They are blinded by the scapegoating process which they think will solve this problem and so falsely accuse Jesus, the Innocent Victim. Rather than punishing the mob for killing his Son, God forgives them and Peter tells them (in Acts) that they need not be fearful of God's vengeance, but now are free to turn away from making more scapegoats. But now I'm preaching. Videos to come.
Daniel, Your comments remind me of why I post on MAP. I really like your starting with something more concrete and clearly shared by all humans like space/time than at the higher level of moral/spiritual domains which are always so culturally embedded. Always better if we can start with something we can relate more directly to cognition, no? So parallel to this post I am trying to think about the role of disgust in human cognition about specific group formation and specific moral judgements. Disgust is a universal emotion and yet culturally particular at the same time. Maybe I need to take on "abomination" as a research project! Ultimately such a project might well link up with your violence program, since at some point in Israelite history violence, once clearly tolerated and even encouraged, apparently became an abomination. We'll continue this discussion I hope. I think a lot better when I am talking with others.
Excellent questions, Bob. I especially like that you emphasize the importance of keeping the moral principles tied to their original cultural contexts. How to stretch the hermeneutics rubber band far enough so it retains that connection without becoming simply generalized principles needs a lot more thought. I find this essay of yours challenging in that regard. I suspect that the answers to this challenge will require nuanced thinking. Unfortunately, my hermeneutical background doesn't lend itself well to finding the answers but I look forward to what come from further dialog. Thanks for your careful thought and writing on this topic.
I think where I want to go with this train of thought is to compare things like what "righteousness" and "salvation" might mean in a biblical society based on hierarchy and mutual obligation versus a modern one based on the ideals of egalitarianism and personal rights. I have written about this elsewhere (and it is on MAP), but not looking at it exactly from this vantage point. (e.g. https://map.bloomfire.com/posts/531144-thought-styles-2) We are used to thinking either that we have progressed beyond hierarchy (even from OT to NT), or else want to re-create the hierarchies found in the Bible (e.g. the reconstructionist movements). I want to find a way to critique both the biblical cultures and our own-biblically. This raises the usual problem of the hermeneutical circle, only on both sides of the equation. How to find a place to stand?
I think the problem is that, as you note, we can't biblically criticize that which is biblical. I think a non-circular way to start is retroactively with Jesus (this is a Barthian way of reading). If we take Jesus as the starting point for all knowledge about God and ourselves then we can retroactively be critical of ourselves and the cultural practices of any time and place (including those in the Bible and their views of God) based on the fact that Jesus has shown us what God is really like. This is an apocalyptic hermeneutic because it can't be figured out. One has to be shown who God is in Jesus (by reading the gospels or being told the story), and then retroactively we can go back and examine the things about ourselves and our families that we thought we knew and discover things to which we were previously blind. We can also do this with other cultures and times. (I suspect some will see this as theological interpretation (and it is the way to good theology) but I don't think that's the case. I think an atheist can come to the same conclusions from reading the gospels with a literary critical method, specifically mimetic criticism as described by Girard).
At the risk of sounding terribly simplistic, I would answer the original question with "Yes, there are some spiritual/moral universals in Biblical cultures, but no more so than there are spiritual/moral universals in other cultures." At times, the meaning of such universals may be clearer (and possibly more accurate) than it is in other cultures. One example of this might be the meaning of "sacrifice" in biblical cultures vs in Mayan culture, for example. From a theological perspective, we might say that the Kingdom of God includes and propagates universal spiritual and moral values. To the extent that Kingdom values permeate a culture, that culture will represent such values. However, that is not due to some inherent characteristics of biblical cultures, but to divine revelation of such meaning as well as the Holy Spirit's transformation of these cultures. In any case, we do well to seek our standards for values and behaviors not in any human culture, not even in a biblical culture, but in the values of the Kingdom of God.
p.s. in another post, I found myself commenting inadvertently on this post: https://map.bloomfire.com/posts/1059869-what-is-culture#comment\_406788 In that comment thread, I claim that " I like the idea that "love your enemy" is the most Christian, and the most universally counter-cultural (in all cultures, in fact, in principle) of all Christian values." But of course this (if I am right) is NOT a moral/spiritual universal embedded in a cultural context, but rather a challenge to ALL cultures, and in fact to human culture in principle (see the comment thread for the other post to see what I mean here).
Recent events have gotten me thinking about his subject again. It seems to me we can look at morality from two different cognitive perspectives: 1. Protection of person and property: The most fundamental version would be the application of
lex talionis,or "an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth." The prototypical version would be the ten commandments, famous for its universality (see common comparisons to the Code of Hammurabi, for e.g.). This cognitive frame would fit into Lakoff's "strict father" conceptual metaphor very neatly. (http://www.npr.org/2016/09/13/493615864/when-it-comes-to-our-politics-family-matters) 2. Empathy: Here one could start with the widow orphan and stranger, or the OT version of love your neighbor as yourself (kinsman/Israelite). Another broader and more inclusive version of this moral cognitive frame of empathy would be the Jesus' widening of "neighbor" to include virtually anyone, including traditional enemies. This finally might lead us to the explicit and most inclusive version of this frame in "love your enemy." Again, Lakoff's "nurturing parent" metaphor would be the most compatible with the empathy frame. (see link above) Each frame perspective has its advantages and disadvantages, and neither necessarily should be seen as more fundamental than the other (though in fact we do tend to do this-massively and universally). I personally like the empathic version and think it is the highest expression of morality, but have to admit it depends a bit on the situation I encounter. If I have just been robbed, or beaten or have seen these things happen to loved ones, I will likely cry out for justice in terms of #1 above. But if I see injustice visited upon the vulnerable whose suffering comes from lack of access to the things so many of us take for granted-for example food, water, housing, and healthcare, my response might be rather to think and act in terms of #2. Part of what makes this a complicated matter is that (as you can see from the examples) frame #1 tends to be about concrete acts and personal responsibility, while #2 tends to be about indirect causation and systemic injustice. Thus people will tend to prefer one over the other due to their own cognitive predispositions. But it is more than this. If the situation is personal and concrete it is more powerful in activating the relevant cognitive frame than if it is general and abstract. Thus we can see how adjudicating whether to apply one or the other frame to a particular social ill often comes from one's own experience. Take immigration: If we have seen a loved one lose a good job while seeing at the same time immigrants making their way into U.S. culture and life (even succeeding financially to some degree), we might be disposed to see the immigrants as having robbed the loved one in the process. But if we know immigrants personally and have seen where they came from and understand the often heart-breaking reasons why they came, we are likely to see them as the "strangers" of the OT we are directed to help. None of this will likely bring opposing sides in the current debates together, but hopefully a little light can be shed (we have had so much wasted heat!) on how it is we all think in motivated ways. I have life-long (so far!) friends with whom I disagree vehemently, yet (so far!) we respect one another and trust that the other really does mean well in the end. That gives me a glimmer of hope for the future.