The Bible "Transmediatized"

We had a number of heavy discussions on the topic of what constitutes "Scripture" in the 1990s, culminating in three publications, "From One Medium to Another" (1997), "Fidelity and Translation" (1999), and "Similarity and Difference in Translation" in 2001.  I was into Bible comics in those days, and one of our concerns was that the constitution of the American Bible Society at that time restricted their publications to "Only Scripture." I tried to demonstrate that one could "prove" that our Bible comics were "Scripture" by creating a set of algorithms by which grammatical clauses can be converted to graphics, specifically the frames of comics. My efforts were rendered obsolete when the powers that be discovered the graphic novel and found it easier to simply change, neuter, or ignore the ABS constitution. I have a two-part paper on "The Eyes and Ears of the Mind: The UBS Quest for Fidelity in Scripture Comics" for anyone interested in the topic.

Extracted text from The_Eyes_and_Ears_of_the_Mind_(Part_I)_The_UBS_Quest_for_Fidelity_in_Scripture_Comics-RK-MS.docx:

The Eyes and Ears of the Mind: The UBS Quest for Fidelity in Scripture Comics When the UBS embarked on Bible comics in Asia in the 1970s, local comics were already so popular in many countries that the genre seemed to be begging to be used for the transmission of Scripture. But the Bible Societies faced a challenge from their own constituents: the founding documents of the organization restricted it to publishing Scripture only, and that, "without note or comment." UBS Translation personnel in Asia had to justify comic Scriptures as translations of Scripture, so they worked out a set of principles which, in effect, did the same thing for comics that Nida and Taber's Theory and Practice of Translation (1969) had done for standard print translation a decade earlier.
TAPOT broke the barrier imposed on translation by a public (including Bible scholars) who believed "literal" was equivalent to "accurate" (or "faithful"). Nida and Tabor demonstrated that in many cases, to be faithful you could not be literal, and vice versa. You had to be faithful to the grammar of the receptor language as well as to that of the source language. You had to adjust the "form" of the text to be accurate in meaning. "Closest Natural Equivalent" became the rule of thumb in the U.B.S. "Formal equivalent" translations gave way to "dynamic equivalent" and then to "functional equivalent."[footnoteRef:1] In this article we try to show how the Asian Bible comics group took the idea of "faithfulness to the language" and applied it to comics as a medium. [1: The non-linguistic public has continued trying to draw a distinction between "paraphrase" and "translation" for many years, but scholars know there is not a clear cut distinction between the two, and that the terms are two points on a continuum of similarity and difference in a set of parameters that constitute the components of a text. ]

It should be noted that the same thing was happening in the area of audio Scriptures, where faithfulness to the medium required recognizing the uniqueness of the audio medium in capturing the oral-aural essence of the original message, in particular intonation and the uniqueness of individual voices. Part of Nida and Tabor's contribution was the insight that we had to get "behind" the text. In terms of semantics, a sentence could be analyzed in terms of just a few semantic primes: objects, events, ABSTRACTS, and relationals, all linked together in a limited number of configurations called "kernels." These had already been set forth in Nida's Toward a Science of Translation (TASOT) in 1964,[footnoteRef:2] but they went global via TAPOT (and translation textbooks by Beekman, Larsen and many others in the field). While translation consultants were teaching this material around the world, they were not aware that "kernels" and the "O-E-A-R" analysis (revised as Participant-Event-Quality-Relational by John Beekman) would become an important step in articulating the link between print and graphic versions of Scripture. It was the theoretical basis, conceived in terms of the science of semantics.

Two other "roots" of Bible comics need to be mentioned here: First, the summarized texts called "bridges" created as part of the "New Reader" literacy selections of the Bible, and, secondly, various "condensed" versions of the Bible such as the "Readers' Digest Bible." The developers of UBS New Reader materials and various versions of "shorter" Bibles[footnoteRef:3] had already broken ground by simplifying Bible stories and by condensing material to form "bridges" between stories. These are both important techniques in the creation of comics. Condensation can be seen as being faithful at a higher level of abstraction or "resolution," in the language of photography. Comment by Martine Solomiac: I have a problem with these abbreviations: they do not coincide with what is written above in the same paragraph "…a few semantic primes: objects, events, qualities, and relationals, …"; the reader might not understand when O-E-Q-R became O-E-A-R Comment by Robert Koops: It should be OBJECTS, EVENTS, ABSTRACTS, and RELATIONALS. [2: The roots of Nida's semantic analysis can be found in Zelig Harris' work on kernel sentences around 1957, and that of Harris' pupil Noam Chomsky, who went on to develop Harris' ideas into the fundamental concepts of "surface structure" and "underlying structure," both key to OEAR analysis, and cited in TASOT (p 59 ff). ] [3: At least eight condensed English Bibles were extant by the 1970's, starting with J.M. Dent's Shorter Bible in 1909. See "Bible Condensations" at Liberty University on Line for a listing. ]

In actual practice, the movement toward including comic versions in "Scripture Production" started when the Regional Secretary of the Bible Society of Malaysia asked Dr. Barclay Newman, a translation consultant, to formulate guidelines for the development of comics.
Newman set forth his ten principles for Bible Comic creation in 1974. The first (inherited from the New Reader program) was that the "integrity of the text" was to be maintained. The "focus and intent of the account" was not to be altered. Other restrictions were that no scenes or dialogues were to be added to "improve" the text, though information from one part of the text could be shifted to another part where it was appropriate. Condensed "bridge" materials, already sanctioned in UBS Scriptures for new readers, were endorsed, and indirect discourse could be changed to direct. This was an adjustment already sanctioned in print-to-print translation to accommodate languages that do not use indirect speech. Newman's core principal was that as much of the text as possible should be expressed by pictures. Exactly how this would be done was left to the intuition of a team of consultants creating the scenarios or "story boards" of the narratives. God was to not to be represented by pictures, but the voice of God could be pictured as coming from a "balloon" with points, giving the impression of a blazing fire or an explosion. The narration and dialog were to be taken from a common language translation, with the level of language being geared to the audience.[footnoteRef:4] Slang was to be avoided. Maps and other readers' helps had already been endorsed by the Bible Societies for study Bibles (transgressing the "no note or comment" dictum of earlier years). [4: Not all translators want translations to use current language. Some prefer that Biblical characters and narrators use antiquated language in order to create a perceived venerable tone in the text. (See Genesis, by Robert Alter and Robert Crumb). ]

The Bible Societies printed Newman's trial comic version of the Abraham story in 1975, illustrated by a Hong Kong artist, and critiqued by Dr. Noel Osborn in a paper called "Let's Be Serious about Comics." Others who participated in the discussion were Dr. William Smalley, and Dr. Paul Fueter (Swiss Bible Society) and Dr. Edward Hope. Hope revised and expanded Newman's guidelines to 29 in 1978. Foremost was that the emphasis, theology, and intent of the author was to be primary.[footnoteRef:5] Hope added several new elements: the "character of the medium" was to be respected, and that included "transformation" of elements of the text into non-verbal features such as pictures, sound effects, lighting, and symbols. Summaries could be included as long as they are labeled as such. Parenthetical, peripheral material, and problematical contradictions could be dropped--but the reader must be informed of such. Information could now be "added" to the text only where necessary to introduce participants in a dialogue and only where that information is available elsewhere in the text, and constitutes "background information" necessary to appreciate the story. "Transculturation" was avoided in earlier discussions, but was now being addressed in the debate over the fidelity of dynamic equivalence translations. In comics, as in print versions, it would be allowed in parables, wisdom literature and "teachings," but even there, "the universality of the message should not be lost." In other words, skin color, facial features, clothing, and gestures must find a balance between local and global. [5: "... the emphasis, theology, and intent of the author"---easy to say, but just how would these para-linguistic features be measured or evaluated? Such subjective boundaries were probably necessary to rule out distorting comic adaptations of Scripture, and they helped to open the door to flexibility at a practical level, but they don't say much about equivalence at a sentence, clause, or proposition level. ]

The U.B.S. produced a few comics under the robust regime of Newman and Hope, and millions of readers across Asia were reading them. But while all this concern for accuracy / faithfulness was going on, another major development happened at a much higher level. Somebody moved the goalposts, as it were, when the United Bible Societies changed the constitution to allow for "Scripture Engagement" materials, recognizing that having an accurate Bible was not much use if people were not engaged with the message in some way. The result of this was to take the spotlight off of the accuracy of audio, comic, and other media. All that was needed was to declare that they were "Scripture Engagement" materials. Almost anything that related to the Bible somehow was acceptable.
However, some UBS folk were still interested in requiring some standard of accuracy in these media. Getting down to the specifics of "equivalence" between the printed text and the visual text, Hope pushed for as much of the action in the text to be presented visually as possible, and then, more of the narrative to be carried by dialogue (rather than in captions). Interestingly, to deflect doubtful critics, he advocated printing the full text of the story on a separate page at the end of the comic. Hope had a strong sense that the "adaptation" (no one dared call it a "translation" in those days) must make maximum use of the comic medium. For example, dialogue implied close-up scenes. These should be interspersed with long-distance scenes. Important events should be done larger. Emphasis in dialogue should be in enlarged and/or bold face, etc.
A popular hypothesis in communication in the 1960s was that the more abstract the image, the more readers can identify with it. The publication of Annie Valotton's highly abstract drawings in the newly published Good News Bible (1966) used this idea. In comics, Hope advocated that "artwork should be sufficiently abstract as to be consistent with the medium" and he was even open to a certain amount of caricature. The "abstract" hypothesis would soon be tested by the German Bible Society (see below). Comment by Martine Solomiac: I think it is Annie Valotton Comment by Robert Koops: Yes, indeed. my mistake. Hope, incidentally, was also deeply involved in the development of Scriptures in audio format, and certain aspects of that enterprise carried over into the Bible comics discussion. Conversion of indirect speech to direct speech, for example, and issues of condensation, emphasis, and focus--these carry across the two media. The most direct link, however, comes with the decision in audio scriptures to "dramatize" the text by using different voices for different participants and the narrator, as you can easily imagine when you think of the "voices" appearing in balloons and the narrator's voice appearing in boxes. Hope continued to refine the principles in the late 1970s, and the Bible Societies published the Prodigal Son story in 1977 under the title "Found." By that time Dr. Uli Fick of the German Bible Society became involved and provided input from the German perspective. A slew of articles and position papers appeared, both for and against the Bible comic enterprise, spawning a mid-year conference by the World Catholic Federation for the Biblical Apostolate with the theme: "Is it lawful to transpose the BIBLE into CARTOON FORMAT" with a subsequent compilation of papers. The UBS Asia Pacific Region went on to draft "Joseph" in 1981 and then "Moses" in two parts. That same year the Regional Center officially inaugurated a "Comics Committee" which now included Drs. Euan Fry and Howard Hatton. A whole series on "Bible Heroes" was planned and started in 1982 with Philipino artist Juanito Ingente as illustrator. The group continued to refine and implement the principles and to promote the legitimacy of Bible comics against a European and American Christian culture which still considered them frivolous and incompatible with the dignity of Holy Scripture. Moses 1 and 2 appeared in 1983 and the David Comics appeared in 1984. Elijah, Jeremiah, and Abraham followed. Production was painfully slow, so the region created a new "Comics Working Group" to speed it up. By 1987 they had overseen the publication of over 3.7 million comics (eight O.T. titles) in 31 Asian languages. They also developed a three part series on the life of Jesus. Consultants Annie del Corro and Peggy Yew joined the working group in 1988, replacing Dr. Fry who retired the same year.
The original Comics Committee met for the last time in 1990, production having been taken over by the Regional Working Group. The battle for acceptance of Bible Comics was won, at least within the UBS fellowship. By this time, the Asia Pacific comics were not only being sold in the millions, but were being adapted into other languages all around the world.
Under the rubric of "Scripture Engagement," and armed with the hypothesis that "Abstract Images Invite Identification," The German Bible Society in 1993 made a daring publishing move in the form of a set of entertaining comics by Rüdiger Pfeffer, beginning with "Jesus the Galilean" and "Jesus the Victor" (published first in German and then in English in 1994 by BFBS). This set was revolutionary not only because of the highly cartoonish style (in contrast to the "realistic" style of the Asian Bible Comics), but also because of its intentionally glaring anachronisms. (Luke is pictured tapping out his Gospel on a typewriter; the angel Gabriel appears to Mary out of a TV set, interrupting a soccer match between Jerusalem and Nazareth). It would be useful to know what GBS and BFBS felt about the impact of these comics. In any case, they went on to produce two on the OT: "Ruth" and "David and Sons."
Meanwhile, the Asia-Pacific working group went on to produce a several more volumes with Juanito Ingente, including one each on the Apostles Peter and Paul, before, mysteriously, switching to a cartoonish style in their final one, on Daniel. Perhaps they were inspired by the German/BFBS experience? "Daniel" was illustrated by Australian artist Graham Wade using computer graphic technology. Although they had more scenarios in the pipeline, the Bible Societies concluded the series with Daniel as the 14th in 1999. By providing Scripture in comic and audio forms, the Bible Societies cracked the barrier that the written text was the only faithful representation of Scripture. Significantly, another debate was about to break down that barrier completely, namely, the issue of the original oral nature of much of the Bible. This fueled a renewed discussion about faithfulness in audio forms of Scripture (see Sundersingh: 2001). In that field also, UBS consultants argued that part of faithfulness was being faithful to the medium of the message. Being faithful to the medium meant recognizing the unique features of each medium. Comment by Martine Solomiac: I don't see the reference of the article in the bibliography. Reflection and discussion on the oral traditions behind the written ones brought a new formulation of the question "What do we translate from?" Those who had thought about faithfulness in various media, which now included "storying," dramatization, filmed dramatization, animation, and sign language, eventually came to a new answer. That answer amounted to an end run around the scholars of the Bible as text who had struggled for decades to find an elusive "Ur-text." The new media translators decided, consciously or unconsciously, that the "original" is not a text at all but images in the mind of the writers of the Biblical text. The questions then became: What did the writers of the Bible omit from the original communication? What do audio and other Scriptures restore of the original audio component of the original? Intonation and individual voice quality are just two of many speech components that are brought back into the communication event by audio recordings.
Against that background, Bible comic creators then asked: what components of the original do comics restore? Obviously they include the crucial VISUAL aspects of the original scenes. What about the audio? The "sound track" is now expressed in balloons or boxes; the narrator's voice is in boxes and the speakers' voices are in balloons over the heads of the speakers.
The new freedom brought about by these discussions still did not really sanction what ABS produced in 2002: a book-length graphic novel, Samson Judge of Israel. It was a creative, flashy, slick retelling of the Samson story--looking back from the end of his life. Numerous characters were invented to move the story along (and glue the disjointed original together), and generous quantities of background information (culture, geography) were imported to clue in Biblically illiterate prosperous Americans (the only people who could afford to buy it at $13). Labeled an "adaptation from the Contemporary English Version," it made no claim to fidelity to the original, that being fulfilled by printing the CEV text at the back of the book. All the same, at the level of "maintaining the integrity of the text" and faithfulness to the graphic novel genre, it could be considered loosely equivalent. Samson was followed in 2003 by Testament, consisting of 22 stories from the Old Testament--creation through four prophets--each done by a nationally acclaimed comic artist, and skillfully woven together as a single story told by a bartender, who tells us also that the story is still being written--by an almighty Author. In terms of loyalty to the Author, that the editors would claim that "the emphasis, theology, and intent of the author" (Barclay Newman's first and great commandment) is maintained, though there are surely those who would dispute that. For example, Bible literalists would have opposed the editors' decision to convey the non-historicity of Jonah by using a caricatured, Brothers Grimmesque artistic style. In contrast to Samson, which included the CEV text of the story, Testament includes, somewhat surprisingly for a "Scripture" production, brief life stories of the 21 artists who contributed. The interfaith scopus of this beautiful work is shown by the fact that the introduction is written by Rabbi Bradley Hirschfield. While this account of recent developments in Bible comics is primarily historical, it is intended to cultivate an approach to any kind of translation, print or otherwise, in which, at every point in the translation of a text, the translator stands where the original writer stood, asking: Who or what is in focus? What is in the background? What is the action or state of affairs described? Only by seeing and hearing the original scenes with the "eyes and ears of the mind," can a translator really re-express them in ways that are appropriate and powerful for readers, listeners, and viewers of the Biblical story.
Robert Koops

Bibliography American Bible Society. (2002) Samson. Metron Press. American Bible Society. (2003) Testament. Metron Press. Arichea, Daniel (1980) "What Is the Picture?" The Bible Translator. 31/4: 423-430. Armstrong, D., W. Stokoe and S Wilcox (1995) Gesture and the Nature of Language. Cambridge University Press. Eisner, W. (1985) Comics & Sequential Art. Poorhouse Press, Tamarac, Florida. Eisner, W. (2008) Graphic Storytelling and Visual Narrative. WW Norton. Heine, Bernd (1997) Cognitive Foundations of Grammar. New York and Oxford. University Press. Hope, E. (1980) "Scripture Cassettes," The Bible Translator 31/4: 412-419. Jahr, H. (1993) "Jesus as a Comic Hero, Provocation or Invitation" Lecture to the German Bible Society. Koops, R. (1981) "Cassetizing the Word--Monovocal or Polyvocal?" United Bible Societies Bulletin 124/125:89-97. Koops, R. (2001) "When Moses Meets Dilbert: Similarity and Difference in Print, Audio, and Comic-strip versions of the Bible" in Similarity and Difference in Translation, Arduini, S., and R. Hodgson, Eds. Nida Institute for Biblical Scholarship. Guaraldi. McCloud, S. (1993) Understanding Comics. McCloud, S. (2000) Reinventing Comics. Harper-Collins. Metzger, B. and R. White, Jr (1982) "The Reader's Digest Bible: An Interview," Princeton Seminary Bulletin XXX Nida, E. (1975). Exploring Semantic Structures. Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag. Nida, E. (1964) Toward a Science of Translation with Special Referece to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden and Boston: E. J. Brill. Nida, E., and C. Taber (1969) Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: Brill. Noss, P. (1981) "The Oral Story and Bible Translation," The Bible Translator 32/3: 301-318. Pfeffer, R. (1966) Jesus the Galilean. New York: American Bible Society. Pfeffer, Rudiger (1966) Jesus the Victor. New York: American Bible Sciety. Sterk, J. (1994) "Translation as Re-creation," The Bible Translator 45/1: 129-138. Sundersingh, J. (2001) Audio-Based Translation: Communicating Biblical Scriptures to Non-Literate People. SAIACS Press 2001. Wolk, D. (2007) Reading Comics: How Graphic Novels Work and What They Mean. Da Capo Press

1